Devotion_NN1 :_: Paradise_NN1 Restored_VVD The_AT story_NN1 of_IO Adam_NP1 and_CC Eve_NP1 ,_, as_CSA depicted_VVN in_II the_AT windows_NN2 at_II Chartres_NP1 ,_, acted_VVN as_II the_AT foundational_JJ story_NN1 for_IF medieval_JJ spirituality_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT Old_JJ Testament_NN1 book_NN1 of_IO Genesis_NP1 ,_, God_NP1 created_VVD Adam_NP1 and_CC Eve_NP1 and_CC gave_VVD them_PPHO2 a_AT1 home_NN1 in_II paradise_NN1 ,_, the_AT Garden_NN1 of_IO Eden_NP1 ._. 
God_NP1 asked_VVD but_CCB one_MC1 thing_NN1 of_IO them_PPHO2 :_: not_XX to_TO eat_VVI the_AT fruit_NN from_II the_AT tree_NN1 of_IO the_AT knowledge_NN1 of_IO good_JJ and_CC evil_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB ,_, tempted_VVN by_II the_AT serpent_NN1 ,_, Adam_NP1 and_CC Eve_NP1 ate_VVD ._. 
As_CSA punishment_NN1 for_IF their_APPGE sin_NN1 ,_, God_NP1 banished_VVD them_PPHO2 from_II paradise_NN1 ._. 
Absent_JJ God_NP1 ,_, the_AT world_NN1 devolved_VVN into_II a_AT1 tragedy_NN1 of_IO pride_NN1 ,_, violence_NN1 ,_, and_CC sin_NN1 ._. 
Thus_RR began_VVD the_AT long_JJ human_JJ quest_NN1 to_TO regain_VVI paradise_NN1 ,_, to_TO somehow_RR find_VVI a_AT1 way_NN1 back_RP to_II God_NP1 's_GE presence_NN1 ._. 
Medieval_JJ spirituality_NN1 was_VBDZ marked_VVN by_II its_APPGE sense_NN1 of_IO exile_NN1 and_CC longing_VVG to_TO return_VVI as_CSA Christians_NN2 sought_VVD holy_JJ reunion_NN1 with_IW God_NP1 in_II this_DD1 life_NN1 with_IW hope_NN1 for_IF the_AT next_MD ._. 
Sacred_JJ Journey_NN1 My_APPGE first_MD course_NN1 in_II medieval_JJ religious_JJ history_NN1 was_VBDZ taught_VVN by_II Professor_NNB Eleanor_NP1 McLaughlin_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 noted_JJ scholar_NN1 of_IO both_RR spirituality_NN1 and_CC women_NN2 's_GE history_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 morning_NNT1 ,_, with_IW the_AT day_NNT1 's_GE topic_NN1 posted_VVD as_RG "_" Celtic_JJ Christianity_NN1 ,_, "_" Professor_NNB McLaughlin_NP1 walked_VVD into_II the_AT classroom_NN1 ,_, paying_VVG scant_JJ attention_NN1 to_II her_APPGE students_NN2 ,_, and_CC pretended_VVD to_TO light_VVI a_AT1 fire_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA she_PPHS1 knelt_VVD on_II the_AT floor_NN1 ,_, she_PPHS1 explained_VVD ,_, "_" Celtic_JJ households_NN2 began_VVD the_AT day_NNT1 by_II blessing_VVG the_AT fire_NN1 ._. "_" 
Her_APPGE hands_NN2 moved_VVD gracefully_RR around_II the_AT imaginary_JJ embers_NN2 as_CSA she_PPHS1 recited_VVD an_AT1 ancient_JJ Irish_JJ prayer_NN1 ._. 
"_" Celtic_JJ spirituality_NN1 melded_VVD Irish_JJ folk_NN ways_NN2 and_CC Christianity_NN1 ,_, "_" she_PPHS1 said_VVD ._. 
"_" It_PPH1 enfolded_VVD nature_NN1 and_CC grace_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 kind_NN1 of_IO nature_NN1 mysticism_NN1 ,_, in_II a_AT1 pagan_NN1 and_CC Christian_JJ synthesis_NN1 ._. "_" 
She_PPHS1 recited_VVD the_AT legend_NN1 of_IO Patrick_NP1 coming_VVG to_II Ireland_NP1 ,_, the_AT birthplace_NN1 of_IO Celtic_JJ Christianity_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA it_PPH1 happened_VVD ,_, Patrick_NP1 landed_VVD on_II Easter_NNT1 eve_NNT1 ,_, and_CC he_PPHS1 lit_VVD a_AT1 Pascal_JJ fire_NN1 that_CST lighted_VVD up_RP an_AT1 entire_JJ hillside_NN1 ._. 
The_AT wizards_NN2 who_PNQS counseled_VVD the_AT High_JJ King_NN1 warned_VVD that_CST if_CS Patrick_NP1 's_GE fire_NN1 were_VBDR not_XX put_VVN out_RP by_II dawn_NNT1 ,_, "_" it_PPH1 will_VM not_XX be_VBI quenched_VVN till_II doomsday_NN1 "_" and_CC that_CST the_AT one_PN1 who_PNQS kindled_VVD it_PPH1 "_" will_VM vanquish_VVI the_AT kings_NN2 and_CC lords_NN2 of_IO Ireland_NP1 ._. "_" 
Wizards_NN2 tried_VVD to_TO extinguish_VVI Patrick_NP1 's_GE flame_NN1 ,_, but_CCB their_APPGE powers_NN2 failed_VVN and_CC many_DA2 converted_VVN to_II Christianity_NN1 ._. 
From_II this_DD1 mythical_JJ beginning_NN1 a_AT1 Celtic_JJ version_NN1 of_IO Christianity_NN1 --_NN1 one_MC1 distinct_JJ from_II the_AT traditions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Roman_JJ Church_NN1 --_NN1 dominated_VVD Ireland_NP1 ._. 
"_" Their_APPGE learning_NN1 ,_, art_NN1 ,_, and_CC song_NN1 were_VBDR placed_VVN in_II wholehearted_JJ service_NN1 of_IO God_NP1 and_CC the_AT Church_NN1 ,_, "_" one_MC1 historian_NN1 noted_VVD ._. 
"_" Nothing_PN1 was_VBDZ done_VDN by_II halves_NN2 ._. "_" 
Professor_NNB McLaughlin_NP1 said_VVD it_PPH1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 fire_NN1 that_CST could_VM not_XX be_VBI quenched_VVN ._. 
This_DD1 "_" wall_NN1 of_IO holy_JJ fire_NN1 "_" swept_VVN across_II Europe_NP1 ._. 
The_AT Celts_NN2 ,_, inveterate_JJ wanderers_NN2 ,_, could_VM not_XX sit_VVI still_JJ ._. 
Years_NNT2 before_II Gregory_NP1 the_AT Great_JJ conceived_VVN of_IO missions_NN2 as_CSA politically_RR advantageous_JJ ,_, Celtic_JJ Christians_NN2 set_VVN out_RP on_II journeys_NN2 as_II a_AT1 practice_NN1 of_IO faith_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 did_VDD not_XX invent_VVI the_AT practice_NN1 of_IO pilgrimage_NN1 ._. 
Rather_RR ,_, the_AT Celts_NN2 defined_VVD the_AT whole_NN1 of_IO the_AT Christian_JJ life_NN1 as_II a_AT1 sacred_JJ journey_NN1 ._. 
"_" God_NP1 counseled_VVD Abraham_NP1 ,_, "_" wrote_VVD Columba_NP1 (_( ca._NNU 521-597_MCMC )_) ,_, "_" to_TO leave_VVI his_APPGE own_DA country_NN1 and_CC go_VVI on_II pilgrimage_NN1 to_II the_AT land_NN1 which_DDQ God_NP1 has_VHZ shown_VVN him_PPHO1 ...._... 
Now_RT the_AT good_JJ counsel_NN1 which_DDQ God_NP1 enjoined_VVD here_RL on_II the_AT father_NN1 of_IO the_AT faithful_JJ is_VBZ incumbent_JJ on_II all_DB the_AT faithful_JJ ;_; that_DD1 is_VBZ to_TO leave_VVI their_APPGE country_NN1 and_CC their_APPGE land_NN1 ,_, their_APPGE wealth_NN1 and_CC their_APPGE worldly_JJ delight_NN1 for_IF the_AT sake_NN1 of_IO the_AT Lord_NN1 of_IO the_AT Elements_NN2 ,_, and_CC go_VV0 in_II perfect_JJ pilgrimage_NN1 in_II imitation_NN1 of_IO him_PPHO1 ._. "_" 
The_AT Voyage_NN1 of_IO Brendan_NP1 records_VVZ the_AT legend_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 navigator_NN1 ,_, Brendan_NP1 (_( 484-577_MCMC or_CC 583_MC )_) ,_, who_PNQS sets_VVZ out_RP to_TO find_VVI "_" the_AT island_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ called_VVN the_AT Promised_JJ Land_NN1 of_IO the_AT Saints_NN2 ._. "_" 
The_AT Voyage_NN1 recounts_VVZ how_RRQ Brendan_NP1 and_CC his_APPGE companions_NN2 sailed_VVN for_IF seven_MC years_NNT2 ,_, encountering_VVG all_DB manner_NN1 of_IO angels_NN2 and_CC demons_NN2 in_II nature_NN1 's_GE beauty_NN1 and_CC fearful_JJ storms_NN2 ,_, in_II miraculous_JJ adventures_NN2 that_CST tested_VVD the_AT pilgrims_NN2 '_GE faithfulness_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 took_VVD so_RG long_RR ,_, as_CSA Brendan_NP1 learns_VVZ at_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO the_AT journey_NN1 ,_, because_CS "_" God_NP1 wished_VVD to_TO show_VVI you_PPY his_APPGE many_DA2 wonders_NN2 in_II the_AT great_JJ ocean_NN1 ._. "_" 
When_CS they_PPHS2 arrived_VVD ,_, they_PPHS2 discovered_VVD "_" open_JJ land_NN1 stretching_VVG out_RP before_II them_PPHO2 covered_VVN with_IW trees_NN2 laden_VVN with_IW autumnal_JJ fruit_NN ,_, "_" where_CS night_NNT1 never_RR fell_VVD and_CC a_AT1 wide_JJ river_NN1 flowed_VVN through_II the_AT center_NN1 of_IO the_AT island_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 angel_NN1 greeted_VVD Brendan_NP1 and_CC his_APPGE crew_NN1 ,_, instructing_VVG them_PPHO2 to_TO load_VVI their_APPGE boats_NN2 with_IW fruits_NN2 and_CC gems_NN2 before_II sending_VVG them_PPHO2 home_RL to_II their_APPGE waiting_JJ friends_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Voyage_NN1 was_VBDZ widely_RR popular_JJ in_II written_JJ ,_, oral_NN1 ,_, and_CC pictorial_JJ forms_NN2 through_II the_AT Middle_JJ Ages_NN2 ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 was_VBDZ translated_VVN into_II many_DA2 European_JJ languages_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 served_VVD as_RG both_RR an_AT1 exciting_JJ tale_NN1 and_CC an_AT1 extended_JJ metaphor_NN1 for_IF the_AT Christian_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
Unlike_JJ early_JJ Christians_NN2 ,_, who_PNQS made_VVD pilgrimage_NN1 to_II specific_JJ locations_NN2 associated_VVN with_IW Christ_NP1 or_CC the_AT saints_NN2 ,_, Celts_NN2 tended_VVD toward_II no_AT particular_JJ destination_NN1 --_NN1 except_II the_AT "_" Island_NN1 of_IO Paradise_NN1 ._. "_" 
On_II this_DD1 quest_NN1 they_PPHS2 wandered_VVD across_II the_AT seas_NN2 ;_; they_PPHS2 wandered_VVD on_II land_NN1 ._. 
Occasionally_RR they_PPHS2 stopped_VVD to_TO set_VVI up_RP a_AT1 cross_NN1 ,_, some_DD huts_NN2 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 small_JJ monastic_JJ community_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB then_RT they_PPHS2 started_VVD to_TO wander_VVI again_RT ._. 
Theirs_PPGE was_VBDZ a_AT1 vagrant_JJ life_NN1 for_IF Christ_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 self-imposed_JJ exile_NN1 from_II their_APPGE beloved_JJ homeland_NN1 to_TO find_VVI a_AT1 new_JJ way_NN1 of_IO being_VBG in_II God_NP1 ._. 
As_II a_AT1 chronicler_NN1 from_II 891_MC wrote_VVD of_IO three_MC Irish_JJ strangers_NN2 who_PNQS arrived_VVD in_II Cornwall_NP1 ,_, "_" They_PPHS2 wanted_VVD to_TO go_VVI into_II exile_NN1 for_IF the_AT love_NN1 of_IO God_NP1 ,_, they_PPHS2 cared_VVD not_XX whither_RRQ ._. "_" 
Celts_NN2 took_VVD the_AT story_NN1 of_IO Jesus_NP1 with_IW them_PPHO2 to_II places_NN2 like_II Scotland_NP1 ,_, the_AT north_ND1 of_IO England_NP1 ,_, France_NP1 ,_, Switzerland_NP1 ,_, Denmark_NP1 ,_, and_CC Germany_NP1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 wandered_VVD not_XX for_IF the_AT sake_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE own_DA souls_NN2 but_II21 for_II22 the_AT sake_NN1 of_IO others_NN2 as_RR21 well_RR22 ,_, converting_VVG many_DA2 pagan_JJ tribes_NN2 to_II Christianity_NN1 ._. 
As_II the_AT missionary_NN1 Columbanus_NN1 (_( d._NNU 615_MC )_) wrote_VVD to_II a_AT1 friend_NN1 ,_, "_" You_PPY know_VV0 I_PPIS1 love_VV0 the_AT salvation_NN1 of_IO many_DA2 and_CC seclusion_NN1 for_IF myself_PPX1 ,_, the_AT one_PN1 for_IF the_AT progress_NN1 of_IO the_AT Lord_NN1 ,_, that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, of_IO His_APPGE Church_NN1 ,_, the_AT other_JJ for_IF my_APPGE own_DA desire_NN1 ._. "_" 
Celtic_JJ sacred_JJ journey_NN1 strengthened_VVD both_RR the_AT inner_JJ spiritual_JJ life_NN1 and_CC the_AT outer_JJ life_NN1 of_IO the_AT church_NN1 by_II forming_VVG Christian_JJ communities_NN2 ._. 
As_II such_DA ,_, Celtic_JJ pilgrimage_NN1 embodied_VVD Jesus_NP1 's_GE mission_NN1 to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 faith_NN1 community_NN1 in_II the_AT world_NN1 ._. 
Eventually_RR Celtic_JJ pilgrims_NN2 encountered_VVN Roman_JJ monks_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE genius_NN1 for_IF organization_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 meeting_NN1 that_CST did_VDD not_XX augur_VVI well_RR for_IF the_AT less_RGR precise_JJ Celts_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Celtic_JJ church_NN1 and_CC the_AT Roman_JJ one_PN1 disagreed_VVD --_NN1 among_II other_JJ things_NN2 --_NN1 over_II the_AT date_NN1 of_IO Easter_NNT1 ,_, the_AT authority_NN1 of_IO the_AT pope_NN1 ,_, and_CC styles_NN2 for_IF monastic_JJ haircuts_NN2 ._. 
Although_CS the_AT Celts_NN2 lost_VVN on_II all_DB these_DD2 issues_NN2 in_II a_AT1 church_NN1 council_NN1 in_II 664_MC ,_, their_APPGE spiritual_JJ fervor_NN1 quietly_RR strengthened_VVD the_AT new_JJ Roman_JJ church_NN1 in_II England_NP1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 crucible_NN1 of_IO pilgrimage_NN1 and_CC institution_NN1 ,_, Western_JJ Christianity_NN1 was_VBDZ reborn_VVN ._. 
Or_CC ,_, as_CSA Professor_NNB McLaughlin_NP1 said_VVD ,_, Celtic_JJ spirituality_NN1 became_VVD "_" the_AT life-giver_NN1 of_IO the_AT structure_NN1 ,_, the_AT fire_NN1 in_II the_AT hearth_NN1 of_IO faith_NN1 ._. "_" 
And_CC throughout_II the_AT Middle_JJ Ages_NN2 ,_, whenever_RRQV the_AT power_NN1 of_IO the_AT institution_NN1 threatened_VVD to_TO overwhelm_VVI the_AT heat_NN1 of_IO faith_NN1 ,_, pilgrimage_NN1 continued_VVD to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 life-giving_JJ path_NN1 for_IF Christians_NN2 who_PNQS heeded_VVD the_AT call_NN1 to_II spiritual_JJ exile_NN1 ._. 
Icons_NN2 Protestant_JJ churches_NN2 tend_VV0 toward_II being_VBG plain_JJ ._. 
White_JJ or_CC light_JJ blue_JJ walls_NN2 ,_, clear_JJ or_CC inexpensive_JJ colored_JJ windows_NN2 ,_, red_JJ or_CC gold_NN1 carpet_NN1 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 simple_JJ cross_NN1 or_CC two_MC constitute_VV0 most_RGT spiritual_JJ decor_NN1 of_IO American_JJ congregations_NN2 ._. 
In_II Sunday_NPD1 school_NN1 classrooms_NN2 hang_VV0 discreet_JJ pictures_NN2 of_IO Jesus_NP1 and_CC some_DD historical_JJ scenes_NN2 of_IO the_AT Holy_JJ Land_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA simplicity_NN1 comes_VVZ from_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST Protestants_NN2 ,_, unlike_JJ Roman_JJ Catholics_NN2 and_CC Orthodox_JJ Christians_NN2 ,_, believe_VV0 that_CST statues_NN2 and_CC paintings_NN2 distract_VV0 attention_NN1 away_II21 from_II22 the_AT Bible_NN1 and_CC sermon_NN1 ._. 
Words_NN2 of_IO scripture_NN1 and_CC acts_NN2 of_IO goodness_NN1 reveal_VV0 God_NP1 ,_, not_XX art_NN1 ._. 
Christians_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN arguing_VVG for_IF quite_RG a_AT1 long_JJ time_NNT1 about_II visual_JJ representation_NN1 of_IO God_NP1 ._. 
In_II 600_MC Bishop_NP1 Serenus_NP1 of_IO Marseilles_NP1 destroyed_VVD all_DB the_AT pictures_NN2 in_II every_AT1 church_NN1 in_II his_APPGE city_NN1 ._. 
Apparently_RR the_AT bishop_NN1 felt_VVD that_CST "_" images_NN2 somehow_RR cheapened_VVD the_AT sacred_JJ words_NN2 of_IO Scripture_NN1 ._. "_" 
When_CS Pope_NP1 Gregory_NP1 the_AT Great_JJ heard_VVN of_IO Serenus_NP1 's_GE action_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 chastised_VVD the_AT bishop_NN1 :_: It_PPH1 is_VBZ one_MC1 thing_NN1 to_TO worship_VVI a_AT1 painting_NN1 ,_, and_CC quite_RR another_DD1 to_TO learn_VVI from_II a_AT1 scene_NN1 represented_VVN in_II a_AT1 painting_NN1 what_DDQ ought_VMK to_TO be_VBI worshiped_VVN ._. 
For_IF what_DDQ writing_NN1 provides_VVZ for_IF people_NN who_PNQS read_VVD ,_, paintings_NN2 provide_VV0 for_IF the_AT illiterate_JJ who_PNQS look_VV0 at_II them_PPHO2 ,_, since_CS these_DD2 unlearned_JJ people_NN see_VV0 what_DDQ they_PPHS2 must_VM imitate_VVI ;_; paintings_NN2 are_VBR books_NN2 for_IF those_DD2 who_PNQS do_VD0 not_XX know_VVI their_APPGE letters_NN2 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 they_PPHS2 take_VV0 the_AT place_NN1 of_IO books_NN2 especially_RR specifically_RR among_II pagans_NN2 ._. 
Although_CS Gregory_NP1 stated_VVD the_AT principle_NN1 clearly_RR enough_RR ,_, it_PPH1 did_VDD not_XX stop_VVI icons_NN2 from_II becoming_VVG one_MC1 of_IO the_AT most_RGT controversial_JJ issues_NN2 in_II the_AT medieval_JJ church_NN1 ._. 
In_II 726_MC the_AT Eastern_JJ emperor_NN1 ,_, Leo_NP1 III_MC ,_, outlawed_VVD the_AT use_NN1 of_IO icons_NN2 and_CC ordered_VVD their_APPGE destruction_NN1 ._. 
Up_II21 to_II22 that_DD1 time_NNT1 ,_, icons_NN2 had_VHD not_XX been_VBN the_AT sole_JJ possession_NN1 of_IO saints_NN2 ,_, monks_NN2 ,_, and_CC theologians_NN2 ._. 
Ancient_JJ churches_NN2 invited_VVD the_AT laity_NN1 to_TO "_" enter_VVI an_AT1 alternative_JJ world_NN1 ._. "_" 
There_RL ,_, in_II cool_JJ silence_NN1 ,_, worshipers_NN2 were_VBDR greeted_VVN by_II "_" the_AT legions_NN2 of_IO saints_NN2 --_NN1 painted_VVN on_II the_AT walls_NN2 or_CC captured_VVN on_II wooden_JJ panels_NN2 ...._... 
Staring_VVG straight_RR ahead_RL ,_, they_PPHS2 waited_VVD the_AT supplicant_NN1 's_GE entreaty_NN1 ,_, through_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 would_VM become_VVI animated_JJ ._. 
At_II that_DD1 moment_NN1 the_AT martyrs_NN2 of_IO the_AT past_NN1 mingled_VVN with_IW the_AT faithful_JJ ,_, blurring_VVG the_AT line_NN1 between_II the_AT perceptible_JJ and_CC that_DD1 which_DDQ is_VBZ beyond_II human_JJ cognition_NN1 ._. "_" 
Lay_VV0 Christians_NN2 were_VBDR accustomed_VVN to_II using_VVG icons_NN2 in_II public_JJ worship_NN1 and_CC private_JJ devotion_NN1 ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 was_VBDZ assumed_VVN that_CST the_AT laity_NN1 received_VVD benefit_NN1 in_II healing_NN1 and_CC spiritual_JJ vision_NN1 through_II praying_VVG with_IW them_PPHO2 ._. 
Holy_JJ images_NN2 formed_VVD devotion_NN1 throughout_II Eastern_JJ Christianity_NN1 ,_, opening_VVG the_AT vision_NN1 of_IO paradise_NN1 for_IF all_DB ._. 
Upon_II Leo_NP1 's_GE decree_NN1 to_TO ban_VVI them_PPHO2 ,_, mass_JJ rioting_NN1 broke_VVD out_RP across_II the_AT empire_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Christian_JJ poor_JJ revolted_JJ ._. 
Not_XX even_RR the_AT emperor_NN1 could_VM close_VVI the_AT window_NN1 to_II heaven_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 series_NN of_IO edicts_NN2 and_CC counteredicts_VVZ from_II successive_JJ popes_NN2 and_CC emperors_NN2 further_RRR divided_VVD the_AT church_NN1 between_II iconoclasts_NN2 (_( destroyers_NN2 of_IO images_NN2 )_) and_CC iconodules_NN2 (_( worshipers_NN2 of_IO images_NN2 )_) ._. 
Elite_NN1 Christians_NN2 ,_, whose_DDQGE piety_NN1 was_VBDZ based_VVN on_II words_NN2 and_CC the_AT Roman_JJ love_NN1 of_IO rhetoric_NN1 ,_, wanted_VVD to_TO eliminate_VVI icons_NN2 for_IF fear_NN1 that_CST illiterate_JJ masses_NN2 might_VM take_VVI over_II the_AT church_NN1 ._. 
Complicating_VVG the_AT class_NN1 issue_NN1 was_VBDZ the_AT emergence_NN1 of_IO Islam_NN1 in_II the_AT East_ND1 ,_, with_IW its_APPGE strict_JJ prohibition_NN1 against_II images_NN2 of_IO every_AT1 sort_NN1 ._. 
Leaders_NN2 hoped_VVD to_TO mute_VVI Islam_NN1 's_GE challenge_NN1 to_II the_AT faith_NN1 by_II curbing_VVG the_AT abuse_NN1 of_IO icons_NN2 among_II lower_JJR classes_NN2 ._. 
Eventually_RR ,_, in_II 780_MC ,_, the_AT empress_NN1 Irene_NP1 ended_VVD the_AT conflict_NN1 and_CC restored_JJ icons_NN2 to_II the_AT churches_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB theological_JJ questions_NN2 remained_VVD ._. 
She_PPHS1 called_VVD an_AT1 ecumenical_JJ council_NN1 to_TO resolve_VVI the_AT problems_NN2 ._. 
The_AT council_NN1 drew_VVD largely_RR from_II the_AT work_NN1 of_IO John_NP1 of_IO Damascus_NP1 (_( ca._NNU 655-750_MCMC )_) ._. 
Ironically_RR ,_, John_NP1 ,_, the_AT defender_NN1 of_IO icons_NN2 ,_, lived_VVD in_II the_AT Muslim_JJ city_NN1 of_IO Damascus_NP1 ,_, where_CS he_PPHS1 served_VVD as_RG chief_JJ councilor_NN1 to_II the_AT caliph_NN1 ._. 
The_AT caliph_NN1 ,_, despite_II his_APPGE own_DA distaste_NN1 for_IF representative_JJ art_NN1 ,_, protected_JJ John_NP1 against_II several_DA2 attempts_NN2 by_II Christian_JJ partisans_NN2 to_TO have_VHI the_AT theologian_NN1 arrested_VVN or_CC killed_VVD ._. 
John_NP1 addressed_VVD the_AT issue_NN1 rather_RG simply_RR ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ an_AT1 image_NN1 ?_? 
"_" An_AT1 image_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 likeness_NN1 and_CC representation_NN1 of_IO some_PN121 one_PN122 ,_, "_" John_NP1 argued_VVD ,_, "_" containing_VVG in_II itself_PPX1 the_AT person_NN1 who_PNQS is_VBZ imaged_VVN ._. 
The_AT image_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX wont_JJ to_TO be_VBI an_AT1 exact_JJ reproduction_NN1 of_IO the_AT original_JJ ._. 
The_AT image_NN1 is_VBZ one_MC1 thing_NN1 ,_, the_AT person_NN1 represented_VVD another_DD1 ._. "_" 
Thus_RR ,_, having_VHG made_VVN a_AT1 distinction_NN1 between_II the_AT image_NN1 and_CC the_AT thing_NN1 ,_, John_NP1 explained_VVD the_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO images_NN2 ._. 
"_" Every_AT1 image_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 revelation_NN1 and_CC representation_NN1 of_IO something_PN1 hidden_VVN ,_, "_" he_PPHS1 stated_VVD ._. 
Human_JJ beings_NN2 have_VH0 limited_VVN knowledge_NN1 ;_; therefore_RR images_NN2 aid_VV0 in_II our_APPGE capacity_NN1 to_TO experience_VVI what_DDQ is_VBZ beyond_II time_NNT1 and_CC space_NN1 :_: "_" The_AT image_NN1 was_VBDZ devised_VVN for_IF greater_JJR knowledge_NN1 ,_, and_CC for_IF the_AT manifestation_NN1 and_CC popularizing_NN1 of_IO secret_JJ things_NN2 ._. "_" 
For_IF Christians_NN2 this_DD1 is_VBZ "_" a_AT1 pure_JJ benefit_NN1 and_CC help_VV0 to_II salvation_NN1 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 by_II showing_VVG things_NN2 and_CC making_VVG them_PPHO2 known_VVN ,_, we_PPIS2 may_VM arrive_VVI at_II the_AT hidden_JJ ones_NN2 ,_, desire_NN1 and_CC emulate_VV0 what_DDQ is_VBZ good_JJ ,_, shun_NN1 and_CC hate_VV0 what_DDQ is_VBZ evil_JJ ._. "_" 
John_NP1 attacked_VVD the_AT charge_NN1 that_CST iconodules_VVZ committed_JJ idolatry_NN1 by_II claiming_VVG ,_, "_" Icons_NN2 are_VBR not_XX idols_NN2 but_CCB symbols_NN2 ._. "_" 
When_CS a_AT1 Christian_NN1 venerated_VVD an_AT1 icon_NN1 (_( used_VVN the_AT icon_NN1 in_II worship_NN1 )_) ,_, John_NP1 insisted_VVD that_CST the_AT act_NN1 did_VDD not_XX constitute_VVI worship_NN1 of_IO the_AT image_NN1 ._. 
"_" We_PPIS2 do_VD0 not_XX make_VVI obeisance_NN1 to_II the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO wood_NN1 ,_, but_CCB we_PPIS2 revere_VV0 and_CC do_VD0 obeisance_NN1 to_II Him_PPHO1 who_PNQS was_VBDZ crucified_VVN on_II the_AT Cross_NN1 ._. "_" 
Christ_NP1 himself_PPX1 is_VBZ an_AT1 image_NN1 ,_, his_APPGE human_JJ nature_NN1 a_AT1 reflection_NN1 of_IO the_AT invisible_JJ divine_JJ nature_NN1 ._. 
John_NP1 believed_VVD that_DD1 based_VVN on_II the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO Jesus_NP1 himself_PPX1 ,_, representative_JJ art_NN1 was_VBDZ necessary_JJ to_II Christian_JJ worship_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Second_MD Council_NN1 of_IO Nicaea_NP1 (_( 787_MC )_) affirmed_VVD John_NP1 's_GE view_NN1 of_IO icons_NN2 and_CC condemned_JJ iconoclasts_NN2 ._. 
Although_CS the_AT events_NN2 of_IO the_AT iconoclast_NN1 controversy_NN1 seem_VV0 trivial_JJ today_RT ,_, they_PPHS2 shaped_VVD the_AT practice_NN1 of_IO Christian_JJ art_NN1 for_IF the_AT entirety_NN1 of_IO the_AT Middle_JJ Ages_NN2 in_II both_DB2 the_AT Eastern_JJ and_CC Western_JJ churches_NN2 ._. 
