Religion_NN1 and_CC the_AT world_NN1 religions_NN2 Sigmund_NP1 Freud_NP1 (_( 1856-1939_MCMC )_) ,_, one_MC1 of_IO the_AT great_JJ psychologists_NN2 of_IO the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, wrote_VVD that_DD1 religion_NN1 is_VBZ comparable_JJ to_II a_AT1 childhood_NN1 neurosis_NN1 ._. 
If_CS this_DD1 is_VBZ so_RR ,_, the_AT world_NN1 is_VBZ filled_VVN with_IW something_PN1 like_II five_MC billion_NNO neurotic_JJ individuals_NN2 ._. 
As_CSA I_PPIS1 type_VV0 these_DD2 words_NN2 ,_, in_II sheer_JJ numbers_NN2 there_EX are_VBR roughly_RR two_MC billion_NNO Christians_NN2 ,_, consisting_VVG of_IO Roman_JJ Catholics_NN2 ,_, Protestants_NN2 ,_, and_CC Orthodox_JJ ;_; there_EX are_VBR well_JJ over_RG a_AT1 billion_NNO Muslims_NN2 ,_, close_RR to_II 80_MC percent_NNU of_IO whom_PNQO are_VBR Sunni_NN1 and_CC 20_MC percent_NNU Shiite_NN1 ;_; there_EX are_VBR over_RG a_AT1 billion_NNO Hindus_NN2 ;_; roughly_RR 350_MC million_NNO Buddhists_NN2 (_( Theravada_NP1 and_CC Mahayana_NP1 )_) ;_; approximately_RR 350_MC million_NNO adherents_NN2 of_IO the_AT Chinese_JJ traditions_NN2 of_IO Confucianism_NN1 and_CC Daoism_NN1 ;_; about_RG 300_MC million_NNO adherents_NN2 of_IO African_JJ traditional_JJ religions_NN2 (_( Animists_NN2 ,_, Shamanists_NN2 ,_, etc._RA )_) ;_; 25_MC million_NNO Sikhs_NN2 ;_; 14_MC million_NNO Jews_NN2 ;_; 7_MC million_NNO Baha'i_JJ ;_; 4_MC million_NNO Jains_NP2 ,_, and_CC the_AT list_NN1 goes_VVZ on_II (_( see_VV0 Figure_NN1 1.12_MC )_) ._. 
And_CC the_AT religious_JJ traditions_NN2 are_VBR not_XX limited_VVN to_II geographic_JJ regions_NN2 ._. 
Western_JJ religions_NN2 have_VH0 migrated_VVN East_ND1 and_CC Eastern_JJ religions_NN2 have_VH0 traveled_VVN West_ND1 ._. 
As_II a_AT1 case_NN1 in_II point_NN1 ,_, Diana_NP1 Eck_NP1 --_JJ Director_NN1 of_IO the_AT Pluralism_NN1 Project_NN1 at_II Harvard_NP1 University_NN1 --_NN1 has_VHZ pointed_VVN out_RP that_CST the_AT formerly_RR "_" Christian_JJ country_NN1 "_" of_IO the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 has_VHZ now_RT become_VV0 the_AT most_RGT religiously_RR diverse_JJ nation_NN1 in_II the_AT world_NN1 ,_, with_IW millions_NNO2 of_IO adherents_NN2 of_IO Eastern_JJ as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 Western_JJ religions_NN2 ._. 
Worldwide_RL ,_, nonreligious_JJ people_NN are_VBR clearly_RR in_II the_AT minority_NN1 ,_, making_VVG up_RP only_RR about_RG 15_MC percent_NNU of_IO the_AT world_NN1 's_GE population_NN1 ._. 
No_RR21 doubt_RR22 ,_, religion_NN1 is_VBZ ubiquitous_JJ ._. 
Nevertheless_RR ,_, attempting_VVG to_TO offer_VVI a_AT1 definition_NN1 of_IO religion_NN1 which_DDQ captures_VVZ all_DB and_CC only_RR what_DDQ are_VBR taken_VVN to_TO be_VBI religions_NN2 is_VBZ notoriously_RR difficult_JJ ._. 
Central_JJ to_II some_DD religions_NN2 is_VBZ a_AT1 personal_JJ God_NP1 and_CC other_JJ spiritual_JJ entities_NN2 ;_; for_IF other_JJ religions_NN2 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ no_AT God_NP1 or_CC spirits_NN2 at_RR21 all_RR22 ._. 
Some_DD religions_NN2 view_VV0 the_AT eternal_JJ ,_, personal_JJ existence_NN1 of_IO the_AT individual_NN1 in_II an_AT1 afterlife_NN1 as_CSA paramount_JJ to_II understanding_VVG Ultimate_JJ Reality_NN1 and_CC much_RR more_RGR important_JJ than_CSN temporary_JJ earthly_JJ existence_NN1 ._. 
Others_NN2 see_VV0 what_DDQ we_PPIS2 do_VD0 in_II this_DD1 life_NN1 as_CSA fundamental_JJ ,_, with_IW little_JJ if_CS any_DD consideration_NN1 of_IO the_AT hereafter_NN1 ._. 
Other_JJ differences_NN2 among_II the_AT religions_NN2 abound_VV0 ._. 
But_CCB as_RG diverse_JJ as_CSA religions_NN2 are_VBR ,_, several_DA2 components_NN2 seem_VV0 to_TO be_VBI central_JJ to_II the_AT world_NN1 religions_NN2 :_: a_AT1 system_NN1 of_IO beliefs_NN2 ,_, the_AT breaking_VVG in_RP of_IO a_AT1 transcendent_JJ reality_NN1 ,_, and_CC human_JJ attitudes_NN2 of_IO ultimate_JJ concern_NN1 ,_, meaning_VVG ,_, and_CC purpose_NN1 ._. 
Given_VVN these_DD2 three_MC elements_NN2 ,_, the_AT following_JJ perhaps_RR captures_VVZ what_DDQ most_RRT take_VV0 to_TO be_VBI the_AT essence_NN1 of_IO the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO religion_NN1 :_: a_AT1 religion_NN1 involves_VVZ a_AT1 system_NN1 of_IO beliefs_NN2 and_CC practices_NN2 primarily_RR centered_VVD around_RP a_AT1 transcendent_JJ Reality_NN1 ,_, either_RR personal_JJ or_CC impersonal_JJ ,_, which_DDQ provides_VVZ ultimate_JJ meaning_NN1 and_CC purpose_NN1 to_II life_NN1 ._. 
While_CS this_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 book_NN1 on_II world_NN1 religions_NN2 ,_, work_VV0 in_II the_AT philosophy_NN1 of_IO religion_NN1 would_VM be_VBI deficient_JJ without_IW taking_VVG into_II consideration_NN1 the_AT diversity_NN1 of_IO beliefs_NN2 among_II at_RR21 least_RR22 the_AT major_JJ religious_JJ traditions_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 would_VM be_VBI an_AT1 enormous_JJ task_NN1 to_TO include_VVI all_DB of_IO what_DDQ are_VBR commonly_RR taken_VVN to_TO be_VBI the_AT major_JJ religions_NN2 (_( and_CC I_PPIS1 consider_VV0 the_AT list_NN1 above_RL to_TO be_VBI fairly_RR inclusive_JJ of_IO the_AT world_NN1 religions_NN2 )_) in_II a_AT1 textbook_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 this_DD1 one_PN1 ,_, so_RR limitation_NN1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ ._. 
This_DD1 delimiting_JJ process_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX easy_JJ ,_, but_CCB several_DA2 factors_NN2 made_VVD it_PPH1 more_RGR manageable_JJ than_CSN it_PPH1 could_VM have_VHI been_VBN ._. 
First_MD ,_, since_CS I_PPIS1 am_VBM writing_VVG from_II within_II the_AT English-speaking_JJ world_NN1 and_CC am_VBM most_RGT familiar_JJ with_IW the_AT traditions_NN2 predominant_JJ within_II it_PPH1 ,_, it_PPH1 makes_VVZ sense_NN1 to_TO emphasize_VVI them_PPHO2 over_II others_NN2 ._. 
For_IF someone_PN1 else_RR with_IW a_AT1 different_JJ background_NN1 and_CC writing_VVG from_II a_AT1 different_JJ place_NN1 ,_, other_JJ emphases_NN2 would_VM be_VBI appropriate_JJ ._. 
So_RR ,_, emphasis_NN1 will_VM be_VBI placed_VVN on_II the_AT monotheistic_JJ religions_NN2 of_IO Judaism_NN1 ,_, Christianity_NN1 ,_, and_CC Islam_NN1 ._. 
Historically_RR ,_, the_AT monotheistic_JJ traditions_NN2 have_VH0 included_VVN the_AT belief_NN1 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ only_RR one_MC1 God_NN1 --_NN1 a_AT1 personal_JJ God_NN1 who_PNQS is_VBZ omniscient_JJ (_( all-knowing_NN1 )_) ,_, omnipotent_NN1 (_( all-powerful_JJ )_) ,_, and_CC omnibenevolent_JJ (_( completely_RR good_JJ in_II every_AT1 way_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC thus_RR worthy_JJ of_IO worship_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 God_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT creator_NN1 and_CC sustainer_NN1 of_IO the_AT world_NN1 ._. 
Furthermore_RR ,_, a_AT1 distinction_NN1 is_VBZ often_RR made_VVN among_II monotheists_NN2 between_II theists_NN2 ,_, who_PNQS believe_VV0 that_CST God_NP1 is_VBZ distinct_JJ from_II the_AT world_NN1 and_CC yet_RR actively_RR involved_JJ in_II the_AT world_NN1 (_( guiding_JJ human_JJ history_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, and_CC offering_VVG divine_JJ revelation_NN1 )_) ;_; deists_NN2 ,_, who_PNQS believe_VV0 that_CST God_NP1 is_VBZ distinct_JJ from_II the_AT world_NN1 and_CC not_XX actively_RR involved_JJ in_II the_AT world_NN1 ;_; and_CC panentheists_NN2 ,_, who_PNQS believe_VV0 that_CST God_NP1 permeates_NN2 and_CC is_VBZ co-dependent_JJ with_IW the_AT world_NN1 ._. 
For_IF at_RR21 least_RR22 two_MC millennia_NNT2 philosophers_NN2 have_VH0 attempted_VVN to_TO demonstrate_VVI ,_, through_II reason_NN1 and_CC argument_NN1 ,_, that_CST God_NP1 exists_VVZ ._. 
Of_RR21 course_RR22 not_XX all_DB theists_NN2 agree_VV0 that_CST God_NP1 's_GE existence_NN1 can_VM be_VBI demonstrated_VVN through_II argument_NN1 ,_, and_CC some_DD even_RR agree_VV0 with_IW the_AT atheistic_JJ thesis_NN1 that_CST no_AT rational_JJ account_NN1 of_IO God_NP1 's_GE existence_NN1 can_VM be_VBI offered_VVN ._. 
Some_DD theists_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, have_VH0 gone_VVN so_RG far_RR as_CSA to_TO maintain_VVI that_CST there_EX are_VBR rational_JJ means_NN for_IF proving_VVG that_CST God_NP1 exists_VVZ ,_, while_CS others_NN2 assert_VV0 that_CST God_NP1 's_GE existence_NN1 can_VM be_VBI plausibly_RR demonstrated_VVN but_CCB not_XX proven_VVN ._. 
Many_DA2 arguments_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN constructed_VVN to_TO prove_VVI ,_, or_CC at_RR21 least_RR22 provide_VVI reason_NN1 for_IF ,_, belief_NN1 in_II God_NP1 ,_, and_CC in_II this_DD1 and_CC the_AT next_MD two_MC chapters_NN2 we_PPIS2 will_VM be_VBI examining_VVG three_MC of_IO them_PPHO2 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 we_PPIS2 will_VM work_VVI through_II various_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO the_AT cosmological_JJ argument_NN1 ._. 
The_AT different_JJ versions_NN2 of_IO the_AT cosmological_JJ argument_NN1 each_DD1 begin_VV0 by_II focusing_VVG on_II some_DD empirical_JJ fact_NN1 of_IO the_AT universe_NN1 from_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 then_RT follows_VVZ that_CST something_PN1 outside_II the_AT universe_NN1 must_VM have_VHI caused_VVN it_PPH1 to_TO exist_VVI ._. 
Suppose_VV0 ,_, to_TO use_VVI one_MC1 example_NN1 from_II countless_JJ possibilities_NN2 ,_, that_CST on_II some_DD future_JJ manned_JJ exploration_NN1 to_II a_AT1 distant_JJ planet_NN1 ,_, the_AT astronauts_NN2 discovered_VVD six_MC spherical_JJ objects_NN2 perfectly_RR resting_VVG on_II31 top_II32 of_II33 one_PPX121 another_PPX122 ._. 
Surely_RR ,_, these_DD2 discoverers_NN2 would_VM conclude_VVI ,_, these_DD2 objects_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE hierarchical_JJ structure_NN1 must_VM have_VHI come_VVN from_II something_PN1 ,_, and_CC from_II somewhere_RL ._. 
But_CCB they_PPHS2 could_VM also_RR ask_VVI about_II that_DD1 something_PN1 :_: "_" What_DDQ was_VBDZ the_AT cause_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 thing_NN1 's_GE existence_NN1 which_DDQ caused_VVD these_DD2 objects_NN2 to_TO exist_VVI ?_? "_" 
And_RR31 so_RR32 on_RR33 ._. 
But_CCB can_VM this_DD1 series_NN of_IO causes_NN2 for_IF things_NN2 continue_VV0 on_RP indefinitely_RR ?_? 
Intuitively_RR ,_, it_PPH1 seems_VVZ that_CST it_PPH1 must_VM stop_VVI somewhere_RL --_NN1 there_EX must_VM be_VBI some_DD originating_JJ cause_NN1 ._. 
So_RR ,_, too_RR ,_, argue_VV0 defenders_NN2 of_IO the_AT cosmological_JJ argument_NN1 ,_, when_CS we_PPIS2 begin_VV0 examining_VVG the_AT causes_NN2 of_IO (_( or_CC reasons_NN2 for_IF )_) the_AT things_NN2 which_DDQ exist_VV0 in_II the_AT universe_NN1 ,_, and_CC of_IO which_DDQ the_AT universe_NN1 consists_VVZ ,_, the_AT causal_JJ chain_NN1 must_VM stop_VVI somewhere_RL ._. 
For_IF theists_NN2 ,_, this_DD1 cause_NN1 is_VBZ God_NP1 ._. 
In_II what_DDQ follows_VVZ we_PPIS2 'll_VM first_MD consider_VVI three_MC cosmological_JJ arguments_NN2 for_IF God_NP1 's_GE existence_NN1 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 various_JJ objections_NN2 to_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
We_PPIS2 will_VM then_RT explore_VVI a_AT1 kind_NN1 of_IO cosmological_JJ argument_NN1 which_DDQ concludes_VVZ that_CST God_NP1 does_VDZ not_XX exist_VVI ._. 
The_AT argument_NN1 from_II contingency_NN1 The_AT person_NN1 who_PNQS has_VHZ probably_RR received_VVN the_AT most_DAT recognition_NN1 for_IF offering_VVG a_AT1 cosmological_JJ argument_NN1 for_IF God_NP1 's_GE existence_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT Catholic_JJ monk_NN1 ,_, St._NP1 Thomas_NP1 Aquinas_NP2 (_( 1224-1274_MCMC )_) ._. 
In_II his_APPGE work_NN1 the_AT Summa_NP1 Theologiae_NP1 ,_, Aquinas_NP2 offers_VVZ five_MC concise_JJ arguments_NN2 for_IF God_NP1 's_GE existence_NN1 ,_, four_MC of_IO which_DDQ are_VBR cosmological_JJ in_II nature_NN1 ._. 
Aquinas_NN2 did_VDD n't_XX invent_VVI cosmological_JJ arguments_NN2 ;_; they_PPHS2 go_VV0 back_RP at_RR21 least_RR22 as_CS31 far_CS32 as_CS33 the_AT ancient_JJ Greek_JJ philosophers_NN2 Plato_NP1 (_( c._RG 428-c._RG 348_MC BCE_NP1 )_) and_CC Aristotle4_FO (_( 384-322_MCMC BCE_NP1 )_) and_CC are_VBR more_RGR fully_RR articulated_VVN by_II medieval_JJ Jewish_JJ ,_, Christian_JJ ,_, and_CC Islamic_JJ thinkers_NN2 ._. 
Nowhere_RL ,_, however_RR ,_, are_VBR they_PPHS2 as_II clearly_RR and_CC concisely_RR put_VVN as_CSA in_II Aquinas_NP2 '_GE Summa_NP1 --_NN1 all_DB four_MC of_IO them_PPHO2 are_VBR contained_VVN in_II less_DAR than_CSN two_MC pages_NN2 ._. 
The_AT most_RGT famous_JJ of_IO Aquinas_NP2 '_GE cosmological_JJ arguments_NN2 is_VBZ his_APPGE "_" third_MD way_NN1 ._. "_" 
Also_RR known_VVN as_II the_AT argument_NN1 from_II contingency_NN1 ,_, or_CC the_AT Thomistic_JJ cosmological_JJ argument_NN1 (_( derived_VVN from_II his_APPGE name_NN1 ,_, Thomas_NP1 Aquinas_NP2 )_) ,_, he_PPHS1 spells_VVZ it_PPH1 out_RP as_CSA follows_VVZ :_: The_AT third_MD way_NN1 is_VBZ taken_VVN from_II possibility_NN1 and_CC necessity_NN1 ,_, and_CC runs_VVZ thus_RR ._. 
We_PPIS2 find_VV0 in_II nature_NN1 things_NN2 that_CST are_VBR possible_JJ to_TO be_VBI and_CC not_XX to_TO be_VBI ,_, since_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR found_VVN to_TO be_VBI generated_VVN ,_, and_CC to_II corrupt_JJ ,_, and_CC consequently_RR ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR possible_JJ to_TO be_VBI and_CC not_XX to_TO be_VBI ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ impossible_JJ for_IF these_DD2 always_RR to_TO exist_VVI ,_, for_IF that_DD1 which_DDQ is_VBZ possible_JJ not_XX to_TO be_VBI at_II some_DD time_NNT1 is_VBZ not_XX ._. 
Therefore_RR ,_, if_CS everything_PN1 is_VBZ possible_JJ not_XX to_TO be_VBI ,_, then_RT at_II one_MC1 time_NNT1 there_EX could_VM have_VHI been_VBN nothing_PN1 in_II existence_NN1 ._. 
Now_RT if_CS this_DD1 were_VBDR true_JJ ,_, even_RR now_RT there_EX would_VM be_VBI nothing_PN1 in_II existence_NN1 ,_, because_CS that_DD1 which_DDQ does_VDZ not_XX exist_VVI only_RR begins_VVZ to_TO exist_VVI by_II something_PN1 already_RR existing_JJ ._. 
Therefore_RR ,_, if_CS at_II one_MC1 time_NNT1 nothing_PN1 was_VBDZ in_II existence_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 would_VM have_VHI been_VBN impossible_JJ for_IF anything_PN1 to_TO have_VHI begun_VVN to_TO exist_VVI ;_; and_CC thus_RR even_RR now_RT nothing_PN1 would_VM be_VBI in_II existence_NN1 --_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ absurd_JJ ._. 
Therefore_RR ,_, not_XX all_DB beings_NN2 are_VBR merely_RR possible_JJ ,_, but_CCB there_EX must_VM exist_VVI something_PN1 the_AT existence_NN1 of_IO which_DDQ is_VBZ necessary_JJ ._. 
But_CCB every_AT1 necessary_JJ thing_NN1 either_RR has_VHZ its_APPGE necessity_NN1 caused_VVN by_II another_DD1 ,_, or_CC not_XX ._. 
Now_RT it_PPH1 is_VBZ impossible_JJ to_TO go_VVI on_RP to_II infinity_NN1 in_II necessary_JJ things_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 their_APPGE necessity_NN1 caused_VVN by_II another_DD1 ,_, as_CSA has_VHZ been_VBN already_RR proved_VVN in_II31 regard_II32 to_II33 efficient_JJ causes_NN2 ._. 
Therefore_RR we_PPIS2 can_VM not_XX but_CCB postulate_VV0 the_AT existence_NN1 of_IO some_DD being_NN1 having_VHG of_IO itself_PPX1 its_APPGE own_DA necessity_NN1 ,_, and_CC not_XX receiving_VVG it_PPH1 from_II another_DD1 ,_, but_CCB rather_RR causing_VVG in_II others_NN2 their_APPGE necessity_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 all_DB men_NN2 speak_VV0 of_IO as_CSA God_NP1 ._. 
The_AT central_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 cosmological_JJ argument_NN1 is_VBZ outlined_VVN in_II the_AT 'Argument_NN1 from_II contingency'_JJ box_NN1 overleaf_RL ._. 
All_DB of_IO the_AT major_JJ religious_JJ traditions_NN2 offer_VV0 hope_NN1 for_IF satisfying_VVG the_AT fundamental_JJ longings_NN2 of_IO humanity_NN1 --_NN1 longings_NN2 for_IF peace_NN1 ,_, fulfillment_NN1 ,_, and_CC real_JJ ,_, sustained_JJ happiness_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB of_RR21 course_RR22 such_DA longings_NN2 are_VBR not_XX often_RR satisfied_VVN in_II this_DD1 life_NN1 ,_, so_CS the_AT religions_NN2 provide_VV0 a_AT1 solution_NN1 :_: while_CS our_APPGE deepest_JJT yearnings_NN2 may_VM not_XX be_VBI fulfilled_VVN in_II the_AT here_RL and_CC now_RT ,_, they_PPHS2 will_VM ultimately_RR be_VBI so_RR ._. 
This_DD1 life_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX the_AT end_NN1 ;_; we_PPIS2 will_VM continue_VVI to_TO exist_VVI (_( in_II some_DD sense_NN1 )_) beyond_II death_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 claim_NN1 raises_VVZ a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO questions_NN2 ._. 
Do_VD0 we_PPIS2 really_RR continue_VVI to_TO survive_VVI after_CS we_PPIS2 die_VV0 ,_, or_CC is_VBZ death_NN1 the_AT very_JJ end_NN1 of_IO our_APPGE conscious_JJ existence_NN1 ?_? 
What_DDQ kinds_NN2 of_IO evidence_NN1 are_VBR there_RL for_IF such_DA a_AT1 belief_NN1 ,_, if_CS any_DD ?_? 
If_CS we_PPIS2 do_VD0 survive_VVI death_NN1 ,_, what_DDQ will_VM this_DD1 experience_VVI be_VBI like_II ,_, and_CC what_DDQ is_VBZ it_PPH1 that_CST survives_VVZ ?_? 
Will_VM our_APPGE thoughts_NN2 and_CC beliefs_NN2 and_CC memories_NN2 be_VBI as_CSA they_PPHS2 are_VBR now_RT ,_, or_CC will_VM everything_PN1 change_VVI ?_? 
Will_VM I_PPIS1 know_VVI my_APPGE family_NN1 and_CC friends_NN2 in_II the_AT afterlife_NN1 ,_, or_CC will_VM we_PPIS2 all_DB be_VBI transformed_VVN beyond_II recognition_NN1 ?_? 
If_CS we_PPIS2 have_VH0 thought_VVN much_RR about_II life_NN1 after_II death_NN1 ,_, these_DD2 are_VBR the_AT sorts_NN2 of_IO questions_NN2 we_PPIS2 have_VH0 probably_RR pondered_VVN ._. 
How_RRQ we_PPIS2 answer_VV0 them_PPHO2 is_VBZ largely_RR determined_VVN by_II our_APPGE worldview_NN1 or_CC religious_JJ tradition_NN1 ._. 
While_CS each_DD1 of_IO the_AT world_NN1 religions_NN2 provides_VVZ a_AT1 positive_JJ answer_NN1 to_II the_AT question_NN1 of_IO whether_CSW there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 continued_JJ existence_NN1 after_II death_NN1 ,_, the_AT answers_NN2 provided_VVN by_II them_PPHO2 are_VBR quite_RG different_JJ ._. 
Before_CS we_PPIS2 explore_VV0 some_DD of_IO the_AT central_JJ questions_NN2 surrounding_VVG life_NN1 after_II death_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ to_TO first_MD delve_VVI into_II the_AT issue_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ the_AT self_NN1 is_VBZ ,_, and_CC of_IO what_DDQ personal_JJ identity_NN1 consists_VVZ ,_, for_IF our_APPGE answers_NN2 to_II these_DD2 issues_NN2 will_VM significantly_RR influence_VVI our_APPGE understanding_NN1 of_IO how_RRQ we_PPIS2 view_VV0 the_AT afterlife_NN1 ._. 
Conceptions_NN2 of_IO the_AT self_NN1 There_EX are_VBR various_JJ conceptions_NN2 of_IO the_AT self_NN1 which_DDQ have_VH0 been_VBN held_VVN historically_RR in_II the_AT East_ND1 and_CC the_AT West_ND1 ,_, and_CC we_PPIS2 can_VM delineate_VVI four_MC of_IO the_AT major_JJ ones_NN2 in_II the_AT following_JJ manner_NN1 :_: 1_MC1 dualism_NN1 2_MC materialism_NN1 3_MC monistic_JJ pantheism_NN1 4_MC the_AT Buddhist_JJ doctrine_NN1 of_IO no-self_NN1 ._. 
We_PPIS2 will_VM briefly_RR examine_VVI each_DD1 one_PN1 in_II turn_NN1 ._. 
Dualism_NN1 There_EX have_VH0 been_VBN a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO conceptions_NN2 of_IO the_AT self_NN1 historically_RR ,_, and_CC in_II the_AT West_ND1 dualism_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT most_RGT widely_RR held_VVN of_IO them_PPHO2 all_DB ._. 
On_II one_MC1 major_JJ dualist_NN1 account_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 person_NN1 consists_VVZ of_IO two_MC substances_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 material_NN1 substance_NN1 (_( the_AT body_NN1 )_) and_CC an_AT1 immaterial_JJ or_CC mental_JJ substance_NN1 (_( the_AT soul_NN1 or_CC mind_NN1 )_) ._. 
Rene_NP1 Descartes_NP1 (_( 1596-1650_MCMC )_) is_VBZ perhaps_RR the_AT most_RGT widely_RR recognized_VVN defender_NN1 of_IO substance_NN1 ,_, or_CC mind-body_NN1 ,_, dualism_NN1 ._. 
On_II his_APPGE account_NN1 ,_, the_AT soul_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 unextended_JJ (_( non-spatial_JJ )_) substance_NN1 ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ contrasted_VVN with_IW the_AT body_NN1 ,_, an_AT1 extended_JJ (_( spatial_JJ )_) substance_NN1 ._. 
The_AT soul_NN1 and_CC the_AT body_NN1 (_( somehow_RR )_) relate_VV0 to_II one_PPX121 another_PPX122 ,_, but_CCB how_RRQ an_AT1 immaterial_JJ substance_NN1 can_VM interact_VVI with_IW a_AT1 physical_JJ substance_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 mystery_NN1 --_NN1 a_AT1 mystery_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ often_RR been_VBN castigated_VVN as_II the_AT problem_NN1 of_IO the_AT "_" ghost_NN1 in_II the_AT machine_NN1 ._. "_" 
Another_DD1 form_NN1 of_IO dualism_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT Thomistic_JJ view_NN1 (_( derived_VVN from_II the_AT work_NN1 of_IO Thomas_NP1 Aquinas_NP2 ,_, 1225-1274_MCMC )_) in_II which_DDQ the_AT soul_NN1 is_VBZ understood_VVN to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 complex_JJ structure_NN1 that_CST keeps_VVZ in_II check_NN1 various_JJ mental_JJ states_NN2 (_( such_II21 as_II22 feelings_NN2 ,_, thoughts_NN2 ,_, and_CC sensations_NN2 )_) ,_, capacities_NN2 ,_, and_CC structures_NN2 ._. 
On_II this_DD1 account_NN1 the_AT soul_NN1 ,_, while_CS immaterial_JJ ,_, is_VBZ what_DDQ animates_VVZ ,_, unifies_VVZ ,_, and_CC develops_VVZ the_AT biological_JJ functions_NN2 of_IO the_AT physical_JJ body_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ anindividual_JJ 's_GE source_NN1 of_IO life_NN1 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 its_APPGE ordering_NN1 principle_NN1 ._. 
In_II one_MC1 form_NN1 or_CC another_DD1 ,_, many_DA2 of_IO those_DD2 in_II the_AT Western_JJ religions_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN dualists_NN2 as_II the_AT Hebrew_JJ Bible_NN1 ,_, the_AT New_JJ Testament_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT Qur'an_NN1 all_DB seem_VV0 ,_, on_II a_AT1 straightforward_JJ read_VVD at_RR21 least_RR22 ,_, to_TO affirm_VVI the_AT reality_NN1 of_IO body_NN1 and_CC soul_NN1 ._. 
