Beyond_II Attack_NN1 And_CC Apology_NN1 :_: A_ZZ1 New_JJ Look_NN1 at_II An_AT1 Old_JJ Debate_NN1 Is_VBZ there_EX any_DD kinship_NN1 between_II paganism_NN1 and_CC Christianity_NN1 ?_? 
This_DD1 is_VBZ an_AT1 old_JJ question_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR a_AT1 good_JJ question_NN1 ,_, and_CC one_PN1 that_CST has_VHZ never_RR been_VBN answered_VVN satisfactorily_RR ._. 
The_AT second-century_JJ apologist_NN1 Tertullian_NN1 famously_RR asked_VVD ,_, "_" What_DDQ indeed_RR has_VHZ Athens_NP1 to_TO do_VDI with_IW Jerusalem_NP1 ?_? "_" 
He_PPHS1 meant_VVD to_TO separate_VVI Christianity_NN1 from_II Greek_JJ philosophy_NN1 ._. 
Not_XX all_DB Christian_JJ thinkers_NN2 agreed_VVD ,_, and_CC in_II a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO ways_NN2 Christianity_NN1 eventually_RR embraced_VVN and_CC was_VBDZ enriched_VVN by_II a_AT1 long_JJ engagement_NN1 with_IW Greek_JJ philosophers_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB if_CS by_II "_" Athens_NP1 "_" the_AT questioner_NN1 meant_VVD Greek_JJ and_CC Roman_JJ religion_NN1 ,_, then_RT all_DB Christians_NN2 agreed_VVD --_JJ and_CC still_RR tend_VV0 to_TO agree_VVI with_IW Tertullian_JJ --_NN1 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ no_AT connection_NN1 at_RR21 all_RR22 ._. 
On_II one_MC1 side_NN1 is_VBZ truth_NN1 and_CC on_II the_AT other_JJ side_NN1 is_VBZ error_NN1 ,_, pure_JJ and_CC simple_JJ ._. 
But_CCB as_CSA another_DD1 famous_JJ epigrammatist_NN1 reminded_VVD us_PPIO2 ,_, "_" the_AT truth_NN1 is_VBZ rarely_RR pure_JJ and_CC seldom_RR simple_JJ ._. "_" 
Perhaps_RR the_AT disjunction_NN1 is_VBZ too_RG severe_JJ ._. 
And_CC perhaps_RR the_AT characteristic_JJ way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT question_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN put_VVN has_VHZ kept_VVN us_PPIO2 from_II seeing_VVG connections_NN2 and_CC continuities_NN2 that_CST ,_, while_CS not_XX simple_JJ ,_, are_VBR nonetheless_RR true_JJ ._. 
ANCIENT_JJ ATTACK_NN1 AND_CC APOLOGY_NN1 From_II the_AT very_JJ beginning_NN1 ,_, Christians_NN2 emphasized_VVD the_AT distance_NN1 between_II themselves_PPX2 and_CC practitioners_NN2 of_IO pagan_JJ religion_NN1 ._. 
To_TO hear_VVI them_PPHO2 tell_VVI it_PPH1 ,_, becoming_VVG Christian_NN1 was_VBDZ something_PN1 entirely_RR new_JJ --_NN1 there_EX was_VBDZ no_AT connection_NN1 between_II Christianity_NN1 and_CC the_AT Gentile_NN1 religion_NN1 practiced_VVD by_II their_APPGE neighbors_NN2 (_( and_CC by_II themselves_PPX2 before_II their_APPGE conversion_NN1 )_) ._. 
They_PPHS2 identified_VVD themselves_PPX2 with_IW the_AT ancient_JJ texts_NN2 of_IO Israel_NP1 rather_II21 than_II22 with_IW the_AT myths_NN2 of_IO the_AT pagan_JJ gods_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX to_TO suggest_VVI that_CST securing_VVG a_AT1 place_NN1 within_II the_AT world_NN1 of_IO Torah_NP1 was_VBDZ easy_JJ or_CC uncontested_JJ ._. 
The_AT New_JJ Testament_NN1 offers_VVZ abundant_JJ evidence_NN1 of_IO arguments_NN2 between_II these_DD2 followers_NN2 of_IO Jesus_NP1 and_CC Jews_NN2 who_PNQS did_VDD not_XX recognize_VVI him_PPHO1 as_II the_AT Messiah_NN1 ._. 
The_AT earliest_JJT Christian_JJ compositions_NN2 can_VM be_VBI regarded_VVN ,_, in_II fact_NN1 ,_, as_CSA a_AT1 massive_JJ effort_NN1 to_TO reinterpret_VVI Torah_NP1 in_II31 light_II32 of_II33 the_AT distinctive_JJ Christian_JJ experiences_NN2 and_CC convictions_NN2 connected_VVN with_IW Jesus_NP1 ._. 
And_CC part_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 process_NN1 of_IO identity_NN1 formation_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 sustained_JJ polemic_NN1 against_II the_AT Jews_NN2 who_PNQS failed_VVD to_TO see_VVI in_II Jesus_NP1 either_RR a_AT1 Lord_NN1 or_CC a_AT1 Messiah_NN1 ._. 
Because_II21 of_II22 the_AT long_JJ history_NN1 of_IO Christian_JJ anti-Semitism_NN1 that_CST fed_VVD on_II such_DA vituperation_NN1 ,_, and_CC above_II all_DB because_II21 of_II22 the_AT experience_NN1 of_IO the_AT Holocaust_NP1 ,_, Christians_NN2 and_CC Jews_NN2 alike_RR are_VBR now_RT highly_RR sensitive_JJ to_II such_DA slanderous_JJ language_NN1 ,_, and_CC sometimes_RT respond_VV0 with_IW moral_JJ outrage_NN1 ._. 
Here_RL is_VBZ a_AT1 case_NN1 where_CS historical_JJ knowledge_NN1 helps_VVZ ._. 
It_PPH1 reminds_VVZ contemporary_JJ readers_NN2 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 great_JJ distance_NN1 between_II a_AT1 tiny_JJ cult_NN1 trying_VVG to_TO find_VVI its_APPGE way_NN1 in_II the_AT world_NN1 in_II competition_NN1 with_IW the_AT more_RGR ancient_JJ and_CC impressive_JJ rival_NN1 ,_, and_CC an_AT1 imperial_JJ church_NN1 that_CST had_VHD (_( and_CC was_VBDZ willing_JJ to_TO use_VVI )_) the_AT power_NN1 to_TO extirpate_VVI its_APPGE ancient_JJ foe_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 reminds_VVZ us_PPIO2 as_RR21 well_RR22 that_DD1 New_JJ Testament_NN1 language_NN1 against_II Jews_NN2 by_RR31 no_RR32 means_RR33 exceeds_VVZ the_AT bounds_NN2 of_IO ancient_JJ rhetorical_JJ conventions_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ were_VBDR liberal_JJ in_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO abuse_NN1 between_II rival_JJ schools_NN2 and_CC sects_NN2 ._. 
What_DDQ contemporary_JJ readers_NN2 ,_, both_RR Christian_JJ and_CC Jewish_JJ ,_, seldom_RR notice_VV0 is_VBZ how_RGQ much_DA1 more_DAR sustained_JJ and_CC savage_VV0 the_AT polemic_NN1 of_IO the_AT New_JJ Testament_NN1 is_VBZ with_II31 respect_II32 to_II33 the_AT Gentile_NN1 world_NN1 than_CSN with_II31 respect_II32 to_II33 Judaism_NN1 ._. 
And_CC the_AT favorite_JJ target_NN1 was_VBDZ Gentile_JJ religion_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 regard_NN1 ,_, the_AT writers_NN2 of_IO the_AT New_JJ Testament_NN1 aligned_VVD themselves_PPX2 completely_RR on_II the_AT side_NN1 of_IO Judaism_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ had_VHD already_RR developed_VVN forms_NN2 of_IO polemics_NN2 against_II pagan_JJ religion_NN1 that_CST were_VBDR at_RR21 least_RR22 the_AT equal_JJ of_IO the_AT fierce_JJ Gentile_NN1 anti-Semitism_NN1 directed_VVN against_II the_AT Jews_NN2 ._. 
The_AT prophets_NN2 of_IO ancient_JJ Israel_NP1 had_VHD long_RR mocked_VVN the_AT polytheism_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE neighboring_JJ Gentiles_NN2 ,_, attacking_VVG their_APPGE worship_NN1 as_CSA idolatry_NN1 ._. 
And_CC this_DD1 tradition_NN1 was_VBDZ continued_VVN in_II the_AT fierce_JJ antagonism_NN1 Jews_NN2 showed_VVD toward_II the_AT worship_NN1 of_IO the_AT majority_NN1 population_NN1 in_II the_AT Hellenistic_JJ Diaspora_NN1 ._. 
In_II a_AT1 stroke_NN1 of_IO translation_NN1 that_CST would_VM prove_VVI to_TO have_VHI enormous_JJ consequences_NN2 ,_, the_AT Septuagint_NP1 (_( LXX_MC ,_, ca._NNU 250_MC BCE_NP1 )_) rendered_VVD the_AT Hebrew_NN1 of_IO Psalm_NN1 96:5_MC ,_, "_" The_AT gods_NN2 of_IO the_AT nations_NN2 are_VBR idols_NN2 ,_, "_" as_CSA "_" The_AT gods_NN2 of_IO the_AT nations_NN2 are_VBR demons_NN2 &lsqb;_( daimonia_NN1 &rsqb;_) "_" (_( LXX_MC Ps_NP1 95:5_MC )_) ,_, thereby_RR placing_VVG all_DB pagan_JJ religion_NN1 neatly_RR into_II the_AT realm_NN1 of_IO the_AT demonic_JJ ._. 
The_AT author_NN1 of_IO Wisdom_NN1 of_IO Solomon_NP1 has_VHZ this_DD1 to_TO say_VVI about_II the_AT religious_JJ practices_NN2 of_IO his_APPGE Gentile_NN1 neighbors_NN2 (_( probably_RR in_II Egypt_NP1 )_) :_: It_PPH1 was_VBDZ not_XX enough_RR for_IF them_PPHO2 to_TO err_VVI about_II the_AT knowledge_NN1 of_IO God_NP1 ,_, but_CCB they_PPHS2 live_VV0 in_II great_JJ strife_NN1 due_II21 to_II22 ignorance_NN1 ,_, and_CC they_PPHS2 call_VV0 such_DA great_JJ evils_NN2 peace_NN1 ._. 
WAYS_NN2 OF_IO BEING_VBG J_NP1 EWIS_NP1 H_ZZ1 IN_II THE_AT GRECO-ROMAN_JJ WORLD_NN1 My_APPGE interest_NN1 in_II this_DD1 study_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT comparison_NN1 between_II the_AT ways_NN2 of_IO being_VBG religious_JJ in_II the_AT Greco-Roman_JJ world_NN1 and_CC the_AT ways_NN2 of_IO being_VBG Christian_JJ between_II the_AT first_MD and_CC fourth_MD centuries_NNT2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ nevertheless_RR both_RR natural_JJ and_CC necessary_JJ to_TO devote_VVI some_DD attention_NN1 to_II Judaism_NN1 in_II the_AT same_DA period_NN1 of_IO time_NNT1 ,_, for_IF at_RR21 least_RR22 three_MC reasons_NN2 ._. 
First_MD ,_, Christianity_NN1 arose_VVD as_II a_AT1 Jewish_JJ sect_NN1 in_II the_AT mid-first_MD century_NNT1 and_CC from_II the_AT beginning_NN1 interpreted_VVD itself_PPX1 with_IW explicit_JJ reference_NN1 to_II the_AT symbolic_JJ world_NN1 of_IO Torah_NP1 that_CST it_PPH1 shared_VVD with_IW Judaism_NN1 ;_; the_AT things_NN2 that_CST made_VVD Judaism_NN1 distinct_JJ within_II the_AT Greco-Roman_JJ world_NN1 are_VBR also_RR the_AT things_NN2 that_CST ,_, to_II a_AT1 lesser_JJ degree_NN1 ,_, made_VVD Christianity_NN1 distinct_JJ ._. 
Second_MD ,_, although_CS Judaism_NN1 could_VM be_VBI viewed_VVN from_II one_MC1 perspective_NN1 as_II the_AT cult_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 extended_JJ family_NN1 (_( "_" the_AT Children_NN2 of_IO Israel_NP1 "_" )_) and_CC from_II another_DD1 perspective_NN1 as_II a_AT1 national_JJ religion_NN1 ,_, I_ZZ1 it_PPH1 could_VM (_( and_CC was_VBDZ )_) also_RR viewed_VVN by_II Jews_NN2 and_CC Gentiles_NN2 alike_RR as_II a_AT1 Mystery_NN1 cult_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 philosophy_NN1 among_II others_NN2 in_II the_AT Greco-Roman_JJ world_NN1 ._. 
Judaism_NN1 makes_VVZ for_IF an_AT1 excellent_JJ point_NN1 of_IO comparison_NN1 to_II the_AT ways_NN2 nascent_JJ Christianity_NN1 could_VM be_VBI perceived_VVN by_II others_NN2 and_CC the_AT ways_NN2 it_PPH1 perceived_VVD itself_PPX1 within_II the_AT same_DA context_NN1 ._. 
Third_MD ,_, across_II the_AT first_MD four_MC centuries_NNT2 of_IO the_AT Common_JJ Era_NN1 ,_, Judaism_NN1 's_GE internal_JJ development_NN1 took_VVD a_AT1 turn_NN1 exactly_RR opposite_JJ to_II that_DD1 of_IO its_APPGE intimate_JJ rival_NN1 :_: as_CSA Christianity_NN1 over_II time_NNT1 came_VVD to_TO resemble_VVI more_RGR fully_RR the_AT broad_JJ range_NN1 of_IO Gentile_NN1 religions_NN2 ,_, Judaism_NN1 pulled_VVD back_RP from_II its_APPGE cultural_JJ entanglement_NN1 with_IW Hellenism_NN1 and_CC asserted_VVD its_APPGE ancestral_JJ Hebrew_JJ traditions_NN2 even_RR more_RGR sharply_RR ._. 
JUDAISM_NN1 IN_II THE_AT GRECO-ROMAN_JJ WORLD_NN1 By_II the_AT time_NNT1 Christianity_NN1 appeared_VVD ,_, the_AT majority_NN1 of_IO Jews_NN2 had_VHD for_IF hundreds_NNO2 of_IO years_NNT2 lived_VVD outside_II Palestine_NP1 in_II the_AT Diaspora_NN1 ._. 
We_PPIS2 know_VV0 less_RRR about_II the_AT Jews_NN2 scattered_VVN through_II the_AT territories_NN2 east_ND1 of_IO the_AT empire_NN1 --_NN1 descendents_NN2 of_IO those_DD2 exiled_VVN due_II21 to_II22 Assyrian_JJ and_CC then_RT Babylonian_JJ conquest_NN1 --_NN1 except_CS as_CSA can_VM be_VBI inferred_VVN from_II the_AT continuing_JJ production_NN1 of_IO literature_NN1 in_II Aramaic_NN1 among_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
About_II the_AT Jews_NN2 living_VVG in_II North_ND1 Africa_NP1 (_( Cyrene_NP1 ,_, Egypt_NP1 )_) ,_, Syria_NP1 ,_, Asia_NP1 Minor_NP1 ,_, Greece_NP1 ,_, and_CC Italy_NP1 ,_, in_II contrast_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 know_VV0 considerably_RR more_RRR ,_, because_II21 of_II22 the_AT extensive_JJ Jewish_JJ literature_NN1 composed_VVN in_II Greek_NN1 ,_, the_AT considerable_JJ inscriptional_JJ evidence_NN1 ,_, and_CC observations_NN2 made_VVN about_II the_AT Jews_NN2 by_II outsiders_NN2 ._. 
For_IF pagan_JJ observers_NN2 who_PNQS knew_VVD nothing_PN1 about_II the_AT roots_NN2 of_IO the_AT Ioudaioi_NN1 in_II Palestine_NP1 --_NN1 their_APPGE astounding_JJ sanctuary_NN1 in_II the_AT city_NN1 of_IO Jerusalem_NP1 ,_, their_APPGE ancient_JJ scriptures_NN2 in_II the_AT Hebrew_JJ language_NN1 ,_, their_APPGE traditions_NN2 of_IO prophecy_NN1 and_CC kingship_NN1 --_NN1 the_AT Jews_NN2 would_VM have_VHI appeared_VVN much_RR like_II other_JJ cultic_JJ associations_NN2 from_II the_AT East_ND1 that_CST had_VHD made_VVN their_APPGE way_NN1 into_II the_AT Greco-Roman_JJ world_NN1 ._. 
Greeks_NN2 and_CC Romans_NN2 had_VHD welcomed_VVN from_II Egypt_NP1 the_AT cults_NN2 of_IO Isis_NP1 and_CC Serapis_NP1 ,_, and_CC from_II Phrygia_NP1 the_AT cult_NN1 of_IO the_AT Great_JJ Mother_NN1 ,_, Cybele_NP1 ._. 
The_AT association_NN1 (_( synagoge_NN1 )_) of_IO the_AT Jews_NN2 resembled_VVN in_II many_DA2 respects_NN2 those_DD2 of_IO other_JJ religions_NN2 :_: they_PPHS2 were_VBDR financed_VVN by_II wealthy_JJ patrons_NN2 ,_, they_PPHS2 had_VHD a_AT1 similar_JJ organizational_JJ structure_NN1 ,_, and_CC they_PPHS2 had_VHD instruments_NN2 for_IF the_AT assistance_NN1 of_IO members_NN2 in_II need_NN1 ?_? 
Their_APPGE actual_JJ religious_JJ practices_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, marked_VVN them_PPHO2 off_RP as_RG distinct_JJ among_II other_JJ cults_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 did_VDD not_XX ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, meet_VV0 to_TO offer_VVI sacrifice_NN1 or_CC celebrate_VV0 cultic_JJ meals_NN2 in_II honor_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE deity_NN1 ;_; their_APPGE meetings_NN2 were_VBDR devoted_JJ to_II the_AT reading_NN1 and_CC study_NN1 of_IO scriptures_NN2 and_CC the_AT prayers_NN2 and_CC hymns_NN2 that_CST formed_VVD responses_NN2 to_II those_DD2 readings_NN2 ._. 
Similarly_RR ,_, the_AT rules_NN2 binding_VVG them_PPHO2 to_II practices_NN2 of_IO purity_NN1 in_II diet_NN1 and_CC association_NN1 were_VBDR not_XX temporary_JJ and_CC in_II service_NN1 of_IO making_VVG sacrifice_NN1 ,_, but_CCB were_VBDR permanent_JJ and_CC formed_VVD an_AT1 all-pervasive_JJ way_NN1 of_IO life_NN1 ._. 
With_IW more_DAR contact_NN1 with_IW the_AT Jewish_JJ associations_NN2 ,_, the_AT pagan_JJ observer_NN1 would_VM become_VVI aware_JJ of_IO other_JJ differences_NN2 ._. 
Jews_NN2 would_VM welcome_VVI interested_JJ pagans_NN2 to_II their_APPGE assemblies_NN2 but_CCB would_VM not_XX themselves_PPX2 attend_VVI any_DD form_NN1 of_IO worship_NN1 except_II their_APPGE own_DA ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, they_PPHS2 insisted_VVD that_CST there_EX was_VBDZ only_RR one_MC1 true_JJ God_NP1 and_CC that_CST the_AT temples_NN2 and_CC statues_NN2 that_CST drew_VVD the_AT devotion_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE neighbors_NN2 were_VBDR a_AT1 form_NN1 of_IO false_JJ worship_NN1 ,_, of_IO idols_NN2 or_CC demons_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 were_VBDR conspicuous_JJ for_IF their_APPGE absence_NN1 from_II the_AT civic_JJ festivals_NN2 through_II which_DDQ the_AT populace_NN1 expressed_VVD its_APPGE thanks_NN2 to_II its_APPGE patron_NN1 deities_NN2 and_CC for_IF their_APPGE recognition_NN1 of_IO only_RR one_MC1 day_NNT1 as_CSA nefastus_JJ ,_, namely_REX ,_, their_APPGE Sabbath_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ they_PPHS2 dedicated_VVD to_TO worship_VVI and_CC rest_NN1 from_II all_DB other_JJ activities_NN2 ._. 
AFTER_CS CONS_NN2 TANTINE_NP1 :_: CHRIS_NP1 TIANITY_NP1 AS_CSA IMPERIAL_JJ RELIGION_NN1 Even_RR before_II Constantine_NP1 changed_VVD Christianity_NN1 's_GE historical_JJ situation_NN1 ,_, the_AT religion_NN1 that_CST began_VVD as_II a_AT1 Jewish_JJ sect_NN1 based_VVN on_II the_AT death_NN1 and_CC resurrection_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 Jewish_JJ Messiah_NN1 showed_VVD itself_PPX1 to_TO have_VHI remarkable_JJ capacity_NN1 for_IF survival_NN1 in_II the_AT face_NN1 of_IO persecution_NN1 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO develop_VVI religious_JJ sensibilities_NN2 corresponding_VVG to_II those_DD2 in_II the_AT dominant_JJ Greco-Roman_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA I_PPIS1 showed_VVD in_II Chapter_NN1 8_MC ,_, Judaism_NN1 itself_PPX1 ,_, up_II21 to_II22 the_AT middle_NN1 of_IO the_AT second_MD century_NNT1 when_RRQ its_APPGE dalliance_NN1 with_IW Hellenism_NN1 effectively_RR ended_VVN ,_, revealed_VVD the_AT same_DA adaptive_JJ tendencies_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT second_MD and_CC third_MD centuries_NNT2 ,_, some_DD Christians_NN2 had_VHD the_AT same_DA optimism_NN1 about_II experiencing_VVG the_AT divine_JJ power_NN1 in_II the_AT world_NN1 as_CSA did_VDD their_APPGE Greco-Roman_JJ neighbors_NN2 and_CC celebrated_VVD such_DA power_NN1 in_II signs_NN2 and_CC wonders_VVZ that_CST they_PPHS2 attributed_VVD to_II the_AT Holy_JJ Spirit_NN1 operative_NN1 because_II21 of_II22 the_AT resurrection_NN1 of_IO Jesus_NP1 ._. 
Other_JJ Christians_NN2 shared_VVD the_AT commitment_NN1 of_IO Hellenistic_JJ and_CC Jewish_JJ philosophers_NN2 to_II a_AT1 life_NN1 of_IO moral_JJ transformation_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 did_VDD not_XX scorn_NN1 the_AT power_NN1 of_IO Jesus_NP1 '_GE name_NN1 invoked_VVN in_II exorcisms_NN2 and_CC healings_NN2 ,_, but_CCB they_PPHS2 regarded_VVD a_AT1 life_NN1 of_IO virtue_NN1 as_II the_AT greatest_JJT miracle_NN1 ._. 
Still_RR other_JJ Christians_NN2 fled_VVD involvement_NN1 with_IW the_AT body_NN1 and_CC the_AT world_NN1 altogether_RR ,_, convinced_VVD that_CST the_AT divine_NN1 could_VM be_VBI found_VVN only_RR in_II a_AT1 transcendent_JJ realm_NN1 of_IO spirit_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 cultivated_VVD secret_JJ and_CC saving_VVG knowledge_NN1 as_II the_AT way_NN1 to_TO liberate_VVI the_AT soul_NN1 from_II its_APPGE carnal_JJ prison_NN1 ._. 
Finally_RR ,_, some_DD Christians_NN2 assumed_VVD the_AT leadership_NN1 role_NN1 of_IO bishops_NN2 and_CC ,_, like_II the_AT Greco-Roman_JJ heads_NN2 of_IO associations_NN2 around_II them_PPHO2 ,_, conceived_VVD of_IO their_APPGE role_NN1 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 priesthood_NN1 ,_, focusing_VVG their_APPGE attention_NN1 on_II the_AT stability_NN1 of_IO the_AT church_NN1 ._. 
Within_II the_AT framework_NN1 of_IO the_AT analysis_NN1 used_VVN in_II this_DD1 study_NN1 ,_, Christianity_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 "_" Greco-Roman_JJ religion_NN1 "_" virtually_RR from_II the_AT start_NN1 and_CC grew_VVD increasingly_RR closer_RRR to_II the_AT forms_NN2 and_CC expressions_NN2 of_IO religion_NN1 found_VVN in_II the_AT Greco-Roman_JJ environment_NN1 ._. 
Rather_II21 than_II22 a_AT1 foreign_JJ and_CC forced_JJ imposition_NN1 ,_, the_AT Greco-Roman_JJ character_NN1 of_IO Christianity_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 natural_JJ development_NN1 that_CST required_VVD no_AT external_JJ or_CC political_JJ assistance_NN1 ._. 
As_II the_AT presence_NN1 and_CC influence_NN1 of_IO living_JJ Judaism_NN1 receded_VVD ,_, moreover_RR ,_, Christianity_NN1 's_GE only_JJ real_JJ connection_NN1 to_II its_APPGE Jewish_JJ roots_NN2 was_VBDZ through_II the_AT reading_NN1 of_IO scripture_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 sacred_JJ texts_NN2 from_II ancient_JJ Israel_NP1 were_VBDR being_VBG read_VVN and_CC interpreted_VVN ,_, however_RR ,_, as_CSA Greek_JJ writings_NN2 (_( the_AT LXX_MC )_) by_II people_NN whose_DDQGE cultural_JJ environment_NN1 ,_, rhetorical_JJ education_NN1 ,_, and_CC religious_JJ expectations_NN2 were_VBDR entirely_RR Gentile_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 four_MC distinct_JJ types_NN2 of_IO religious_JJ sensibility_NN1 --_NN1 and_CC in_II the_AT second_MD and_CC third_MD century_NNT1 they_PPHS2 were_VBDR impressively_RR distinct_JJ in_II their_APPGE emphasis_NN1 --_NN1 will_VM emerge_VVI with_IW Christianity_NN1 itself_PPX1 into_II greater_JJR visibility_NN1 when_CS the_AT cult_NN1 of_IO the_AT Messiah_NN1 Jesus_NP1 is_VBZ made_VVN the_AT imperial_JJ religion_NN1 under_II Constantine_NP1 (_( 2721288-337_MCMC )_) and_CC his_APPGE successors_NN2 ,_, but_CCB they_PPHS2 will_VM also_RR assume_VVI new_JJ shapes_NN2 and_CC enter_VVI into_II new_JJ combinations_NN2 ._. 
THE_AT CONSTANTINIAN_NP1 ERA_NP1 I_PPIS1 use_VV0 the_AT phrase_NN1 "_" Constantine_NP1 and_CC his_APPGE successors_NN2 "_" advisedly_RR ,_, because_CS the_AT establishment_NN1 of_IO Christianity_NN1 as_II the_AT imperial_JJ religion_NN1 ,_, however_RGQV sudden_JJ and_CC even_RR unexpected_JJ ,_, did_VDD not_XX happen_VVI all_RR31 at_RR32 once_RR33 or_CC without_IW setback_NN1 ._. 
Constantine_NP1 's_GE own_DA religious_JJ motivations_NN2 or_CC intentions_NN2 are_VBR of_IO little_JJ importance_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ baptized_VVN only_RR shortly_RR before_II his_APPGE death_NN1 in_II 337_MC ,_, his_APPGE positive_JJ attitude_NN1 toward_II Christianity_NN1 is_VBZ clear_JJ already_RR in_II the_AT declaration_NN1 of_IO religious_JJ tolerance_NN1 known_VVN as_II the_AT Edict_NN1 of_IO M_NN1 ilan_NN1 (_( 313_MC )_) ,_, and_CC his_APPGE favor_NN1 toward_II this_DD1 cult_NN1 that_CST had_VHD been_VBN violently_RR persecuted_VVN by_II his_APPGE immediate_JJ predecessors_NN2 found_VVD expression_NN1 in_II public_JJ declarations_NN2 and_CC benefactions_NN2 ._. 
In_II 314_MC ,_, through_II the_AT Synod_NN1 of_IO ArIes_NP1 ,_, he_PPHS1 intervened_VVD in_II the_AT Donatist_JJ controversy_NN1 and_CC in_II 316_MC tried_VVD to_TO settle_VVI it_PPH1 by_II imperial_JJ edict_NN1 ._. 
In_II 321_MC he_PPHS1 declared_VVD Sunday_NPD1 to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 general_JJ holiday_NN1 and_CC ordered_VVD his_APPGE soldiers_NN2 '_GE shields_NN2 to_TO be_VBI engraved_VVN with_IW the_AT sign_NN1 of_IO the_AT cross_NN1 ._. 
In_II 325_MC he_PPHS1 called_VVD and_CC opened_VVD with_IW an_AT1 address_NN1 the_AT ecumenical_JJ council_NN1 at_II Nicaea_NP1 to_TO settle_VVI the_AT Arian_JJ controversy_NN1 (_( and_CC the_AT still_JJ unsettled_JJ date_NN1 of_IO Easter_NNT1 )_) ._. 
