Think_VV0 Smart_NP1 A_ZZ1 Neuroscientist_NN1 's_GE Prescription_NN1 for_IF Improving_VVG Your_APPGE Brain_NN1 's_GE Performance_NN1 When_CS I_PPIS1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 medical_JJ student_NN1 ,_, neither_RR teachers_NN2 nor_CC students_NN2 placed_VVN much_DA1 emphasis_NN1 on_II the_AT brain_NN1 ._. 
The_AT curriculum_NN1 included_VVD only_RR a_AT1 first-year_JJ course_NN1 in_II neuroanatomy_NN1 ,_, followed_VVD two_MC years_NNT2 later_RRR by_II a_AT1 one-month_JJ rotation_NN1 spent_VVD working_VVG with_IW patients_NN2 on_II the_AT neurology_NN1 wards_NN2 ._. 
After_CS graduation_NN1 ,_, most_RGT medical_JJ students_NN2 tended_VVD to_TO avoid_VVI specialty_NN1 training_NN1 in_II careers_NN2 devoted_VVD to_II treating_VVG the_AT brain_NN1 (_( neurology_NN1 and_CC neurosurgery_NN1 )_) ,_, based_VVN on_II the_AT general_JJ perception_NN1 that_CST not_XX much_RR could_VM be_VBI done_VDN to_TO heal_VVI or_CC even_RR improve_VVI the_AT lives_NN2 of_IO many_DA2 of_IO the_AT patients_NN2 afflicted_VVN by_II brain_NN1 diseases_NN2 ._. 
I_PPIS1 remember_VV0 vividly_RR my_APPGE father_NN1 's_GE disappointment_NN1 when_CS I_PPIS1 told_VVD him_PPHO1 I_PPIS1 was_VBDZ interested_JJ in_II neurology_NN1 and_CC psychiatry_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 obstetrics_NN1 (_( his_APPGE specialty_NN1 )_) ._. 
"_" You_PPY ca_VM n't_XX do_VDI anything_PN1 for_IF most_DAT of_IO the_AT patients_NN2 you_PPY 'll_VM encounter_VVI in_II either_DD1 of_IO those_DD2 specialties_NN2 ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 's_VBZ awfully_RR depressing_JJ to_TO just_RR diagnose_VVI and_CC not_XX treat_NN1 ,_, "_" he_PPHS1 told_VVD me_PPIO1 ._. 
A_AT1 lot_NN1 has_VHZ changed_VVN since_II then_RT ._. 
We_PPIS2 have_VH0 learned_VVN more_RRR about_II the_AT brain_NN1 in_II the_AT past_JJ decade_NNT1 than_CSN we_PPIS2 did_VDD in_II the_AT previous_JJ two_MC hundred_NNO years_NNT2 ._. 
If_CS he_PPHS1 were_VBDR still_RR alive_JJ ,_, my_APPGE father_NN1 would_VM be_VBI amazed_VVN at_II the_AT effective_JJ treatments_NN2 now_RT available_JJ for_IF many_DA2 brain_NN1 diseases_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 multiple_JJ sclerosis_NN1 ,_, migraine_VV0 ,_, and_CC epilepsy_NN1 ,_, to_TO mention_VVI just_RR the_AT most_RGT common_JJ ._. 
Neuroscience_NP1 (_( brain_NN1 science_NN1 )_) is_VBZ currently_RR one_MC1 of_IO the_AT most_RGT popular_JJ career_NN1 choices_NN2 among_II students_NN2 attracted_VVN to_II science_NN1 ._. 
Psychiatry_NN1 and_CC neurology_NN1 are_VBR in_II the_AT process_NN1 of_IO merging_VVG into_II the_AT hybrid_JJ discipline_NN1 of_IO neuropsychiatry_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB these_DD2 advances_NN2 did_VDD n't_XX happen_VVI spontaneously_RR ._. 
The_AT advance_NN1 from_II nihilism_NN1 and_CC pessimism_NN1 toward_II curiosity_NN1 and_CC hope_NN1 was_VBDZ stimulated_VVN principally_RR by_II new_JJ ways_NN2 of_IO imaging_VVG the_AT brain_NN1 ._. 
Until_CS the_AT middle_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, what_DDQ little_DA1 was_VBDZ known_VVN about_II the_AT brain_NN1 consisted_VVN of_IO a_AT1 melange_NN1 of_IO speculation_NN1 and_CC dogmatism_NN1 based_VVN on_II hosts_NN2 of_IO hoary_JJ old_JJ men_NN2 staring_VVG through_II microscopes_NN2 at_II brightly_RR colored_VVD dye-stained_JJ neurons_NN2 ._. 
Thanks_II21 to_II22 advances_NN2 in_II brain-imaging_JJ techniques_NN2 over_II the_AT last_MD thirty-plus_JJ years_NNT2 ,_, it_PPH1 's_VBZ currently_RR possible_JJ for_IF neuroscientists_NN2 (_( many_DA2 of_IO whom_PNQO are_VBR now_RT women_NN2 )_) to_TO observe_VVI the_AT development_NN1 of_IO the_AT brain_NN1 in_II real_JJ time_NNT1 and_CC without_IW any_DD need_NN1 for_IF either_RR speculation_NN1 or_CC dogmatism_NN1 ._. 
The_AT principle_NN1 behind_II these_DD2 illuminating_JJ (_( in_II both_DB2 senses_NN2 of_IO the_AT term_NN1 )_) imaging_VVG techniques_NN2 is_VBZ straightforward_JJ :_: blood_NN1 flow_NN1 to_II the_AT brain_NN1 varies_VVZ with_IW activity_NN1 ._. 
The_AT greater_JJR the_AT activity_NN1 ,_, the_AT greater_JJR the_AT flow_NN1 of_IO blood_NN1 needed_VVD to_TO replenish_VVI the_AT oxygen_NN1 and_CC glucose_NN1 used_VVN by_II the_AT active_JJ neurons_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ n't_XX any_DD different_JJ from_II what_DDQ happens_VVZ elsewhere_RL in_II the_AT body_NN1 ._. 
When_CS you_PPY lift_VV0 a_AT1 hundred-pound_JJ barbell_NN1 at_II the_AT health_NN1 club_NN1 in_II an_AT1 effort_NN1 to_TO attract_VVI the_AT attention_NN1 of_IO someone_PN1 nearby_RL in_II whom_PNQO you_PPY 're_VBR romantically_RR interested_JJ ,_, blood_NN1 flow_NN1 increases_VVZ in_II the_AT muscles_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE arms_NN2 and_CC chest_NN1 based_VVN on_II the_AT increased_JJ need_NN1 by_II those_DD2 muscles_NN2 for_IF oxygen_NN1 and_CC glucose_NN1 ._. 
Similarly_RR ,_, when_CS you_PPY use_VV0 a_AT1 specific_JJ circuit_NN1 in_II the_AT brain_NN1 ,_, the_AT components_NN2 of_IO that_DD1 circuit_NN1 will_VM become_VVI more_RGR active_JJ and_CC call_VVI on_II the_AT circulatory_JJ system_NN1 to_TO provide_VVI additional_JJ glucose_NN1 and_CC oxygen_NN1 ._. 
Positron-emission_JJ tomography_NN1 (_( PET_NN1 )_) and_CC functional_JJ magnetic_JJ resonance_NN1 imaging_NN1 (_( fMRI_NN2 )_) detect_VV0 the_AT changes_NN2 in_II blood_NN1 flow_NN1 within_II active_JJ parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT brain_NN1 and_CC record_VV0 them_PPHO2 while_CS the_AT subject_NN1 lies_VVZ within_II a_AT1 special_JJ scanner_NN1 ._. 
Thanks_II21 to_II22 fMRI_NN2 imaging_VVG and_CC other_JJ techniques_NN2 ,_, we_PPIS2 know_VV0 that_CST the_AT brain_NN1 never_RR wears_VVZ out_RP ;_; it_PPH1 gets_VVZ better_RRR the_AT more_RRR we_PPIS2 use_VV0 it_PPH1 ;_; it_PPH1 changes_VVZ in_II structure_NN1 and_CC function_NN1 throughout_II our_APPGE lives_NN2 ._. 
As_II a_AT1 consequence_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 plasticity_NN1 we_PPIS2 sculpt_VV0 our_APPGE brains_NN2 according_II21 to_II22 our_APPGE life_NN1 experiences_NN2 ._. 
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 ,_, no_AT two_MC brains_NN2 are_VBR exactly_RR alike_RR ,_, not_XX even_RR the_AT brains_NN2 of_IO identical_JJ twins_NN2 who_PNQS ,_, while_CS they_PPHS2 share_VV0 the_AT same_DA genetic_JJ makeup_NN1 ,_, do_VD0 n't_XX share_VVI identical_JJ experiences_NN2 ._. 
Due_II21 to_II22 this_DD1 diversity_NN1 in_II the_AT brain_NN1 's_GE organization_NN1 and_CC structure_NN1 from_II one_MC1 person_NN1 to_II another_DD1 ,_, it_PPH1 's_VBZ often_RR possible_JJ to_TO reach_VVI valid_JJ conclusions_NN2 about_II a_AT1 person_NN1 on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE brain_NN1 's_GE organization_NN1 ._. 
Perhaps_RR you_PPY 're_VBR thinking_VVG ,_, "_" These_DD2 differences_NN2 could_VM be_VBI the_AT result_NN1 of_IO self-selection_NN1 :_: people_NN with_IW superior_JJ visual_JJ attention_NN1 might_VM naturally_RR be_VBI attracted_VVN to_TO video_VVI games_NN2 ._. "_" 
To_TO cover_VVI that_DD1 possibility_NN1 ,_, Bavalier_NP1 and_CC Green_NP1 scrounged_VVD around_II the_AT campus_NN1 and_CC after_II a_AT1 good_JJ deal_NN1 of_IO effort_NN1 came_VVD up_RP with_IW thirty-two_MC non-video-playing_JJ students_NN2 ._. 
Half_DB of_IO them_PPHO2 were_VBDR assigned_VVN to_TO play_VVI the_AT puzzle_NN1 game_NN1 Tetris_NP1 ,_, and_CC half_DB to_TO play_VVI the_AT action_NN1 game_NN1 Unreal_JJ Tournament_NN1 ._. 
All_DB played_VVD their_APPGE assigned_JJ game_NN1 for_IF thirty_MC hours_NNT2 over_II the_AT course_NN1 of_IO about_RG thirty_MC days_NNT2 ._. 
In_CS21 case_CS22 you_PPY 're_VBR not_XX familiar_JJ with_IW Unreal_JJ Tournament_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 features_VVZ a_AT1 cornucopia_NN1 of_IO enemies_NN2 and_CC hazards_NN2 coming_VVG at_II you_PPY on_II the_AT screen_NN1 from_II every_AT1 direction_NN1 ._. 
Allow_VV0 your_APPGE attention_NN1 to_TO waver_VVI for_IF a_AT1 few_DA2 milliseconds_NNT2 and_CC ..._... lights_NN2 out_RP !_! 
In_II contrast_NN1 ,_, the_AT classic_JJ falling-blocks_NN2 puzzle_VV0 game_NN1 Tetris_NP1 is_VBZ far_RG less_RGR visually_RR demanding_VVG ._. 
Since_CS the_AT puzzle_NN1 pieces_NN2 always_RR drop_VV0 from_II the_AT top_NN1 of_IO the_AT screen_NN1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ n't_XX any_DD need_NN1 to_TO scan_VVI elsewhere_RL ._. 
With_IW practice_NN1 ,_, "_" video-game_NN1 players_NN2 can_VM process_VVI visual_JJ information_NN1 more_RGR quickly_RR and_CC can_VM track_VVI more_DAR objects_NN2 on_II a_AT1 computer_NN1 screen_NN1 than_CSN nonplayers_NN2 ,_, "_" according_II21 to_II22 Bavelier_NP1 ._. 
Two_MC processes_NN2 serve_VV0 as_RG limiting_JJ factors_NN2 in_II tracking_JJ objects_NN2 on_II a_AT1 screen_NN1 ._. 
The_AT first_MD ,_, attentional_JJ blink_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ the_AT half-second_MD recovery_NN1 time_NNT1 required_VVN to_TO detect_VVI a_AT1 second_MD target_NN1 during_II a_AT1 rapid-fire_JJ sequence_NN1 of_IO targets_NN2 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, if_CS I_PPIS1 ask_VV0 you_PPY to_TO watch_VVI for_IF a_AT1 white_JJ letter_NN1 appearing_VVG on_II a_AT1 computer_NN1 screen_NN1 at_II some_DD point_NN1 in_II a_AT1 stream_NN1 of_IO black_JJ letters_NN2 ,_, you_PPY 'll_VM have_VHI no_AT problem_NN1 doing_VDG so_RR ._. 
But_CCB if_CS I_PPIS1 then_RT ask_VV0 you_PPY to_TO look_VVI for_IF an_AT1 X_ZZ1 appearing_VVG after_II the_AT white_JJ letter_NN1 in_II a_AT1 position_NN1 ranging_VVG from_II immediately_RR after_II the_AT white_JJ letter_NN1 to_II eight_MC letters_NN2 later_RRR ,_, things_NN2 become_VV0 more_RGR complicated_JJ ._. 
No_AT problem_NN1 if_CS the_AT X_ZZ1 comes_VVZ three_MC or_CC more_DAR letters_NN2 later_RRR ._. 
But_CCB if_CS the_AT X_ZZ1 appears_VVZ very_RG close_JJ in_II time_NNT1 to_II the_AT white_JJ letter_NN1 ,_, you_PPY 'll_VM probably_RR miss_VVI it_PPH1 ._. 
That_DD1 's_VBZ because_CS while_CS your_APPGE brain_NN1 is_VBZ "_" busy_JJ "_" looking_VVG for_IF the_AT white_JJ letter_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 will_VM be_VBI unable_JJ ,_, because_II21 of_II22 attentional_JJ blink_NN1 ,_, to_TO process_VVI anything_PN1 else_RR ._. 
This_DD1 brief_JJ but_CCB critical_JJ gap_NN1 can_VM be_VBI narrowed_VVN if_CS a_AT1 person_NN1 spends_VVZ several_DA2 hours_NNT2 a_AT1 week_NNT1 on_II a_AT1 regular_JJ basis_NN1 playing_VVG action-video_JJ games_NN2 ._. 
In_II essence_NN1 ,_, action-video_JJ games_NN2 enable_VV0 the_AT game_NN1 players_NN2 to_TO shorten_VVI their_APPGE attentional_JJ blink_NN1 and_CC thereby_RR perceive_VV0 and_CC respond_VV0 to_II threatening_VVG targets_NN2 that_CST typically_RR spring_VV0 unexpectedly_RR from_II the_AT periphery_NN1 of_IO the_AT screen_NN1 ._. 
The_AT second_MD process_NN1 ,_, subitizing_VVG ,_, refers_VVZ to_II the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO look_VVI at_II an_AT1 array_NN1 of_IO objects_NN2 and_CC immediately_RR and_CC correctly_RR enumerate_VV0 them_PPHO2 without_IW resorting_VVG to_II counting_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, when_CS you_PPY quickly_RR glance_VV0 at_II the_AT checkout_NN1 lines_NN2 in_II the_AT supermarket_NN1 and_CC without_IW counting_VVG automatically_RR select_VV0 the_AT shortest_JJT line_NN1 ,_, you_PPY 're_VBR subitizing_VVG ._. 
Most_DAT people_NN can_VM do_VDI that_DD1 with_IW up_RG21 to_RG22 four_MC objects_NN2 ._. 
Anything_PN1 beyond_II that_DD1 subitizing_JJ limit_NN1 of_IO four_MC must_VM be_VBI counted_VVN and_CC requires_VVZ extra_JJ time_NNT1 ,_, 250_MC to_II 350_MC milliseconds_NNT2 ,_, for_IF each_DD1 additional_JJ item_NN1 ._. 
But_II21 for_II22 action-video_JJ players_NN2 ,_, the_AT subitizing_JJ number_NN1 is_VBZ 50_MC percent_NNU improved_VVN ._. 
What_DDQ 's_VBZ more_RRR ,_, only_RR one_MC1 hour_NNT1 a_AT1 day_NNT1 for_IF ten_MC days_NNT2 of_IO action-video_JJ gaming_NN1 with_IW an_AT1 emotionally_RR intense_JJ shooting_NN1 game_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 Medal_NN1 of_IO Honor_NN1 is_VBZ sufficient_JJ to_TO improve_VVI both_RR visual_JJ attention_NN1 and_CC processing_VVG time_NNT1 ._. 
No_AT improvement_NN1 in_II either_DD1 factor_NN1 occurs_VVZ among_II players_NN2 of_IO Tetris_NP1 or_CC other_JJ non-action-video_JJ games_NN2 ,_, Bavelier_NP1 and_CC Greene_NP1 discovered_VVD ._. 
Although_CS no_PN121 one_PN122 has_VHZ so_RG far_RR come_VVN up_RP with_IW a_AT1 completely_RR satisfying_JJ explanation_NN1 for_IF these_DD2 differences_NN2 ,_, I_PPIS1 suspect_VV0 they_PPHS2 're_VBR due_II21 to_II22 the_AT increased_JJ threat_NN1 and_CC fear_VV0 levels_NN2 experienced_VVN by_II players_NN2 of_IO games_NN2 like_II Medal_NN1 of_IO Honor_NN1 ,_, where_CS players_NN2 can_VM lose_VVI their_APPGE "_" lives_NN2 "_" rather_CS21 than_CS22 simply_RR fail_VVI to_TO solve_VVI a_AT1 puzzle_NN1 as_CSA with_IW Tetris_NP1 ._. 
This_DD1 arousal_NN1 of_IO fear_NN1 and_CC aggression_NN1 in_II31 response_II32 to_II33 perceived_JJ threats_NN2 also_RR plays_VVZ a_AT1 part_NN1 in_II explaining_VVG why_RRQ violent_JJ video_NN1 games_NN2 incite_VV0 violent_JJ behavior_NN1 in_II certain_JJ predisposed_JJ players_NN2 ._. 
The_AT amygdala_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 small_JJ almond-shaped_JJ nucleus_NN1 below_II the_AT cerebral_JJ cortex_NN1 that_CST responds_VVZ to_II threatening_VVG or_CC fearful_JJ faces_NN2 ,_, does_VDZ n't_XX distinguish_VVI between_II events_NN2 occurring_VVG in_II a_AT1 game_NN1 and_CC the_AT same_DA thing_NN1 happening_VVG in_II "_" real_JJ life_NN1 ._. "_" 
"_" Playing_VVG action-video_JJ games_NN2 can_VM alter_VVI fundamental_JJ characteristics_NN2 of_IO the_AT visual_JJ system_NN1 ,_, "_" Bavelier_NP1 says_VVZ ._. 
Essentially_RR ,_, video_NN1 games_NN2 provide_VV0 a_AT1 convenient_JJ and_CC easily_RR accessible_JJ means_NN for_IF changing_VVG the_AT brain_NN1 ._. 
The_AT resulting_JJ fine-tuning_NN1 of_IO visual_JJ attention_NN1 will_VM enable_VVI you_PPY to_TO see_VVI more_RRR ,_, and_CC respond_VVI more_RGR quickly_RR and_CC more_RGR accurately_RR to_II simultaneously_RR occurring_VVG events_NN2 ._. 
Cognitive_JJ Versus_II Physical_JJ Fidelity_NN1 In_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO understand_VVI the_AT value_NN1 of_IO digital_JJ game-based_JJ learning_NN1 as_II a_AT1 training_NN1 tool_NN1 for_IF brain_NN1 enhancement_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 's_VBZ helpful_JJ to_TO distinguish_VVI between_II what_DDQ 's_VBZ called_VVN cognitive_JJ and_CC physical_JJ fidelity_NN1 ._. 
Physical_JJ fidelity_NN1 means_VVZ that_CST the_AT training_NN1 program_NN1 faithfully_RR replicates_VVZ the_AT real-life_JJ situation_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT early_JJ versions_NN2 of_IO the_AT air-flight_JJ simulators_NN2 consisted_VVN of_IO the_AT front_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 real_JJ airplane_NN1 hooked_VVN up_II21 to_II22 computer_NN1 displays_NN2 ._. 
Sitting_VVG in_II one_MC1 ,_, you_PPY almost_RR could_VM n't_XX tell_VVI whether_CSW you_PPY were_VBDR in_II the_AT cockpit_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 actual_JJ plane_NN1 or_CC in_II a_AT1 simulator_NN1 ._. 
Several_DA2 years_NNT2 ago_RA I_PPIS1 experienced_VVD firsthand_RR the_AT effects_NN2 of_IO digital_JJ virtual_JJ learning-flight_JJ simulation_NN1 based_VVN on_II physical_JJ fidelity_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 airline_NN1 pilot_NN1 patient_NN1 of_IO mine_PPGE was_VBDZ required_VVN by_II the_AT FAA_NN1 to_TO undergo_VVI simulator_NN1 testing_VVG after_II recovering_VVG from_II a_AT1 recent_JJ head_NN1 injury_NN1 ._. 
As_II part_NN1 of_IO the_AT evaluation_NN1 ,_, the_AT FAA_NN1 requested_VVN that_CST I_PPIS1 accompany_VV0 him_PPHO1 to_II the_AT testing_NN1 so_CS21 that_CS22 I_PPIS1 could_VM be_VBI interviewed_VVN about_II the_AT risk_NN1 that_CST he_PPHS1 might_VM experience_VVI an_AT1 epileptic_JJ seizure_NN1 as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO the_AT head_NN1 injury_NN1 ._. 
While_CS in_II the_AT simulator_NN1 my_APPGE patient_NN1 performed_VVD so_RG well_RR that_CST he_PPHS1 successfully_RR completed_VVD the_AT testing_NN1 a_AT1 half-hour_NNT1 early_RR ._. 
Since_CS a_AT1 half-hour_NNT1 of_IO paid-for_JJ time_NNT1 remained_VVD ,_, the_AT evaluators_NN2 asked_VVD if_CS I_PPIS1 would_VM like_VVI to_TO try_VVI the_AT simulator_NN1 ._. 
Caught_VVN off_RR21 guard_RR22 ,_, I_PPIS1 readily_RR agreed_VVN to_II what_DDQ I_PPIS1 anticipated_VVD would_VM be_VBI an_AT1 experience_NN1 no_AT different_JJ from_II playing_VVG a_AT1 video_NN1 game_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 few_DA2 minutes_NNT2 later_RRR ,_, I_PPIS1 found_VVD myself_PPX1 strapped_VVN into_II a_AT1 seat_NN1 and_CC at_II the_AT controls_NN2 of_IO what_DDQ had_VHD once_RR been_VBN the_AT cockpit_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 real_JJ 747_MC but_CCB was_VBDZ now_RT part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 simulated_JJ testing_NN1 protocol_NN1 ._. 
I_PPIS1 remember_VV0 two_MC things_NN2 about_II the_AT experience_NN1 :_: the_AT initial_JJ thrill_NN1 of_IO looking_VVG through_II the_AT windshield_NN1 and_CC observing_VVG how_RRQ the_AT scene_NN1 changed_VVN as_CSA I_PPIS1 moved_VVD the_AT yoke_NN1 (_( control_NN1 wheel_NN1 )_) ;_; and_CC the_AT uneasiness_NN1 I_PPIS1 immediately_RR experienced_VVN when_CS the_AT instructor_NN1 told_VVD me_PPIO1 after_II several_DA2 minutes_NNT2 of_IO admittedly_RR enjoyable_JJ flight_NN1 simulation_NN1 ,_, "_" It_PPH1 's_VBZ now_RT time_NNT1 to_TO land_VVI the_AT airplane_NN1 ._. 
Listen_VV0 to_II my_APPGE instructions_NN2 and_CC I_PPIS1 'll_VM tell_VVI you_PPY how_RRQ to_TO do_VDI it_PPH1 ._. "_" 
Of_RR21 course_RR22 I_PPIS1 reminded_VVD myself_PPX1 for_IF the_AT umpteenth_MD time_NNT1 that_CST the_AT simulated_JJ flight_NN1 was_VBDZ n't_XX "_" real_JJ ._. "_" 
But_CCB somehow_RR that_DD1 did_VDD n't_XX calm_VVI me_PPIO1 down_RP ._. 
The_AT brain_NN1 ,_, in_II contrast_NN1 ,_, changes_NN2 in_II both_RR size_NN1 and_CC function_NN1 as_CSA it_PPH1 ages_VVZ ._. 
The_AT brain_NN1 reaches_VVZ its_APPGE maximum_JJ size_NN1 (_( measured_VVN by_II weight_NN1 )_) somewhere_RL between_II twenty_MC and_CC thirty_MC years_NNT2 of_IO age_NN1 and_CC decreases_VVZ progressively_RR for_IF the_AT remainder_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE life_NN1 span_NN1 ._. 
Function_VV0 too_RR changes_VVZ with_IW age_NN1 :_: as_CSA we_PPIS2 age_VV0 we_PPIS2 experience_VV0 decreases_NN2 in_II reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 ,_, spatial_JJ processing_NN1 ,_, and_CC working_VVG memory_NN1 ,_, among_II other_JJ functions_NN2 ._. 
Yet_RR these_DD2 changes_NN2 are_VBR n't_XX due_RR so_RG much_DA1 to_II brain_NN1 cell_NN1 loss_NN1 --_NN1 as_CSA was_VBDZ formerly_RR believed_VVN --_JJ but_CCB to_II failures_NN2 to_TO maintain_VVI the_AT neuronal_JJ circuitry_NN1 linking_VVG neurons_NN2 to_II one_PPX121 another_PPX122 ._. 
In_II31 support_II32 of_II33 this_DD1 view_NN1 ,_, neuroscientists_NN2 have_VH0 found_VVN that_CST the_AT number_NN1 of_IO synapses_NN2 linking_VVG neurons_NN2 to_II one_PPX121 another_PPX122 in_II the_AT cerebral_JJ cortex_NN1 decreases_VVZ with_IW age_NN1 ,_, while_CS the_AT number_NN1 of_IO neurons_NN2 themselves_PPX2 does_VDZ n't_XX change_VVI very_RG much_DA1 ._. 
Given_VVN these_DD2 facts_NN2 about_II the_AT brain_NN1 ,_, the_AT metaphor_NN1 of_IO brain-as-computer_NN1 is_VBZ of_IO limited_JJ usefulness_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ metaphor_NN1 will_VM enable_VVI us_PPIO2 to_TO put_VVI into_II practice_NN1 all_DB of_IO the_AT different_JJ pathways_NN2 to_II brain_NN1 enhancement_NN1 and_CC improvement_NN1 suggested_VVN in_II this_DD1 book_NN1 ?_? 
The_AT best_JJT and_CC most_RGT helpful_JJ metaphor_NN1 for_IF the_AT brain_NN1 that_CST I_PPIS1 have_VH0 come_VVN across_RL was_VBDZ suggested_VVN by_II neurologist_NN1 Kenneth_NP1 Rockwood_NP1 of_IO Dalhousie_NP1 University_NN1 ,_, Halifax_NP1 ,_, Nova_NP1 Scotia_NP1 ,_, Canada_NP1 ._. 
"_" Perhaps_RR we_PPIS2 should_VM think_VVI of_IO the_AT metaphor_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 series_NN of_IO marathons_NN2 ,_, "_" he_PPHS1 says_VVZ ._. 
"_" As_CSA our_APPGE brains_NN2 age_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 must_VM prepare_VVI them_PPHO2 to_TO resist_VVI injury_NN1 --_NN1 equip_VV0 them_PPHO2 with_IW good_JJ education_NN1 ,_, train_VV0 them_PPHO2 thoughtfully_RR with_IW challenging_JJ regimens_NN2 ,_, support_VV0 them_PPHO2 with_IW nurturing_VVG environments_NN2 ,_, and_CC be_VBI prepared_VVN to_TO refresh_VVI them_PPHO2 from_RR41 time_RR42 to_RR43 time_RR44 ._. "_" 
Rockwood_NP1 's_GE metaphor_NN1 allows_VVZ for_IF both_DB2 the_AT structural_JJ and_CC functional_JJ changes_NN2 that_CST accompany_VV0 brain_NN1 growth_NN1 ,_, development_NN1 ,_, and_CC aging_NN1 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 the_AT active_JJ approach_NN1 that_CST will_VM enable_VVI us_PPIO2 to_TO help_VVI our_APPGE brain_NN1 to_TO achieve_VVI optimal_JJ performance_NN1 throughout_II our_APPGE lives_NN2 ._. 
The_AT metaphor_NN1 also_RR is_VBZ consistent_JJ with_IW the_AT brain_NN1 's_GE varying_JJ performance_NN1 depending_VVG upon_II its_APPGE physical_JJ conditioning_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ can_VM always_RR be_VBI improved_VVN by_II additional_JJ effort_NN1 and_CC training_NN1 ._. 
Rockwood_NN1 concludes_VVZ :_: "_" We_PPIS2 should_VM recognize_VVI that_DD1 performance_NN1 can_VM vary_VVI dramatically_RR from_II one_MC1 marathon_NN1 to_II the_AT next_MD ._. 
Perhaps_RR the_AT most_RGT important_JJ consequences_NN2 of_IO such_DA a_AT1 metaphor_NN1 are_VBR that_CST we_PPIS2 should_VM aim_VVI to_TO see_VVI cognitive_JJ aging_NN1 as_II a_AT1 challenge_NN1 for_IF which_DDQ we_PPIS2 must_VM prepare_VVI ,_, that_CST we_PPIS2 gain_VV0 enough_DD equanimity_NN1 to_TO accept_VVI the_AT slowing_VVG that_CST even_RR elite_JJ athletes_NN2 experience_VV0 ,_, and_CC that_CST we_PPIS2 reflect_VV0 on_II what_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN achieved_VVN along_II the_AT way_NN1 ._. "_" 
