Overcoming_VVG barriers:Human_FO mobility_NN1 and_CC development_NN1 Life_NN1 expectancy_NN1 in_II Canada_NP1 is_VBZ five_MC years_NNT2 higher_RRR than_CSN in_II Mexico_NP1 and_CC incomes_NN2 are_VBR three_MC times_NNT2 greater_JJR ._. 
Juan_NP1 was_VBDZ selected_VVN to_TO work_VVI temporarily_RR in_II Canada_NP1 ,_, earned_VVD the_AT right_NN1 to_TO stay_VVI and_CC eventually_RR became_VVD an_AT1 entrepreneur_NN1 whose_DDQGE business_NN1 now_RT employs_VVZ native-born_JJ Canadians_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ just_RR one_MC1 case_NN1 out_II21 of_II22 millions_NNO2 of_IO people_NN every_AT1 year_NNT1 who_PNQS find_VV0 new_JJ opportunities_NN2 and_CC freedoms_NN2 by_II migrating_VVG ,_, benefiting_VVG themselves_PPX2 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 their_APPGE areas_NN2 of_IO originand_NN1 destination_NN1 ._. 
Now_RT consider_VV0 Bhagyawati_NN1 ._. 
She_PPHS1 is_VBZ a_AT1 member_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 lower_JJR caste_NN1 and_CC lives_NN2 in_II rural_JJ Andhra_NP1 Pradesh_NP1 ,_, India_NP1 ._. 
She_PPHS1 travels_VVZ to_II Bangalore_NP1 city_NN1 with_IW her_APPGE children_NN2 to_TO work_VVI on_II construction_NN1 sites_NN2 for_IF six_MC months_NNT2 each_DD1 year_NNT1 ,_, earning_VVG Rs_NNU2 60_MC (_( US$1.20_FO )_) per_II day_NNT1 ._. 
While_CS away_II21 from_II22 home_NN1 ,_, her_APPGE children_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX attend_VVI school_NN1 because_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ too_RG far_RR from_II the_AT construction_NN1 site_NN1 and_CC they_PPHS2 do_VD0 not_XX know_VVI the_AT local_JJ language_NN1 ._. 
Bhagyawati_NN2 is_VBZ not_XX entitled_VVN to_II subsidized_JJ food_NN1 or_CC health_NN1 care_NN1 ,_, nor_CC does_VDZ she_PPHS1 vote_VVI ,_, because_CS she_PPHS1 is_VBZ living_VVG outside_II her_APPGE registered_JJ district_NN1 ._. 
Like_II millions_NNO2 of_IO other_JJ internal_JJ migrants_NN2 ,_, she_PPHS1 has_VHZ few_DA2 options_NN2 for_IF improving_VVG her_APPGE life_NN1 other_II21 than_II22 to_TO move_VVI to_II a_AT1 different_JJ city_NN1 in_II31 search_II32 of_II33 better_JJR opportunities_NN2 ._. 
Our_APPGE world_NN1 is_VBZ very_RG unequal_JJ ._. 
The_AT huge_JJ differences_NN2 in_II human_JJ development_NN1 across_RL and_CC within_II countries_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN a_AT1 recurring_JJ theme_NN1 of_IO the_AT Human_JJ Development_NN1 Report_NN1 (_( HDR_NP1 )_) since_CS it_PPH1 was_VBDZ first_MD published_VVN in_II 1990_MC ._. 
In_II this_DD1 year_NNT1 's_GE report_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 explore_VV0 for_IF the_AT first_MD time_NNT1 the_AT topic_NN1 of_IO migration_NN1 ._. 
For_IF many_DA2 people_NN in_II developing_JJ countries_NN2 moving_VVG away_II21 from_II22 their_APPGE home_NN1 town_NN1 or_CC village_NN1 can_VM be_VBI the_AT best_JJT --_NN1 sometimes_RT the_AT only_JJ --_JJ option_NN1 open_VV0 to_TO improve_VVI their_APPGE life_NN1 chances_NN2 ._. 
Human_JJ mobility_NN1 can_VM be_VBI hugely_RR effective_JJ in_II raising_VVG a_AT1 person_NN1 's_GE income_NN1 ,_, health_NN1 and_CC education_NN1 prospects_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB its_APPGE value_NN1 is_VBZ more_DAR than_CSN that_DD1 :_: being_VBG able_JK to_TO decide_VVI where_RRQ to_TO live_VVI is_VBZ a_AT1 key_JJ element_NN1 of_IO human_JJ freedom_NN1 ._. 
When_RRQ people_NN move_VV0 they_PPHS2 embark_VV0 on_II a_AT1 journey_NN1 of_IO hope_NN1 and_CC uncertainty_NN1 whether_CSW within_II or_CC across_II international_JJ borders_NN2 ._. 
Most_DAT people_NN move_VV0 in_II31 search_II32 of_II33 better_JJR opportunities_NN2 ,_, hoping_VVG to_TO combine_VVI their_APPGE own_DA talents_NN2 with_IW resources_NN2 in_II the_AT destination_NN1 country_NN1 so_BCL21 as_BCL22 to_TO benefit_VVI themselves_PPX2 and_CC their_APPGE immediate_JJ family_NN1 ,_, who_PNQS often_RR accompany_VV0 or_CC follow_VV0 them_PPHO2 ._. 
If_CS they_PPHS2 succeed_VV0 ,_, their_APPGE initiative_NN1 and_CC efforts_NN2 can_VM also_RR benefit_VVI those_DD2 left_VVN behind_RL and_CC the_AT society_NN1 in_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 make_VV0 their_APPGE new_JJ home_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB not_XX all_RR do_VD0 succeed_VVI ._. 
Migrants_NN2 who_PNQS leave_VV0 friends_NN2 and_CC family_NN1 may_VM face_VVI loneliness_NN1 ,_, may_VM feel_VVI unwelcome_JJ among_II people_NN who_PNQS fear_VV0 or_CC resent_VV0 newcomers_NN2 ,_, may_VM lose_VVI their_APPGE jobs_NN2 or_CC fall_VV0 ill_JJ and_CC thus_RR be_VBI unable_JK to_TO access_VVI the_AT support_NN1 services_NN2 they_PPHS2 need_VV0 in_RP order_VVI to_TO prosper_VVI ._. 
The_AT 2009_MC HDR_NP1 explores_VVZ how_RRQ better_JJR policies_NN2 towards_II human_JJ mobility_NN1 can_VM enhance_VVI human_JJ development_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 lays_VVZ out_RP the_AT case_NN1 for_IF governments_NN2 to_TO reduce_VVI restrictions_NN2 on_II movement_NN1 within_RL and_CC across_II their_APPGE borders_NN2 ,_, so_BCL21 as_BCL22 to_TO expand_VVI human_JJ choices_NN2 and_CC freedoms_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 argues_VVZ for_IF practical_JJ measures_NN2 that_CST can_VM improve_VVI prospects_NN2 on_II arrival_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ in_II turn_NN1 will_VM have_VHI large_JJ benefits_NN2 both_RR for_IF destination_NN1 communities_NN2 and_CC for_IF places_NN2 of_IO origin_NN1 ._. 
How_RRQ and_CC why_RRQ people_NN move_VV0 Discussions_NN2 about_II migration_NN1 typically_RR start_VV0 from_II the_AT perspective_NN1 of_IO flows_NN2 from_II developing_JJ countries_NN2 into_II the_AT rich_JJ countries_NN2 of_IO Europe_NP1 ,_, North_ND1 America_NP1 and_CC Australasia_NP1 ._. 
Yet_RR most_DAT movement_NN1 in_II the_AT world_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX take_VVI place_NN1 between_II developing_VVG and_CC developed_JJ countries_NN2 ;_; it_PPH1 does_VDZ not_XX even_RR take_VVI place_NN1 between_II countries_NN2 ._. 
The_AT overwhelming_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO people_NN who_PNQS move_VV0 do_VD0 so_RR inside_II their_APPGE own_DA country_NN1 ._. 
Using_VVG a_AT1 conservative_JJ definition_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 estimate_VV0 that_CST approximately_RR 740_MC million_NNO people_NN are_VBR internal_JJ migrants_NN2 --_NN1 almost_RR four_MC times_NNT2 as_RG many_DA2 as_CSA those_DD2 who_PNQS have_VH0 moved_VVN internationally_RR ._. 
Among_II people_NN who_PNQS have_VH0 moved_VVN across_II national_JJ borders_NN2 ,_, just_RR over_RG a_AT1 third_MD moved_VVN from_II a_AT1 developing_JJ to_II a_AT1 developed_JJ country_NN1 --_NN1 fewer_DAR than_CSN 70_MC million_NNO people_NN ._. 
Most_DAT of_IO the_AT world_NN1 's_GE 200_MC million_NNO international_JJ migrants_NN2 moved_VVN from_II one_MC1 developing_JJ country_NN1 to_II another_DD1 or_CC between_II developed_JJ countries_NN2 ._. 
Most_DAT migrants_NN2 ,_, internal_JJ and_CC international_JJ ,_, reap_VV0 gains_NN2 in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO higher_JJR incomes_NN2 ,_, better_JJR access_NN1 to_II education_NN1 and_CC health_NN1 ,_, and_CC improved_JJ prospects_NN2 for_IF their_APPGE children_NN2 ._. 
Surveys_NN2 of_IO migrants_NN2 report_VV0 that_CST most_DAT are_VBR happy_JJ in_II their_APPGE destination_NN1 ,_, despite_II the_AT range_NN1 of_IO adjustments_NN2 and_CC obstacles_NN2 typically_RR involved_JJ in_II moving_VVG ._. 
Once_RR established_VVN ,_, migrants_NN2 are_VBR often_RR more_RGR likely_JJ than_CSN local_JJ residents_NN2 to_TO join_VVI unions_NN2 or_CC religious_JJ and_CC other_JJ groups_NN2 ._. 
Yet_RR there_EX are_VBR trade-offs_NN2 and_CC the_AT gains_NN2 from_II mobility_NN1 are_VBR unequally_RR distributed_VVN ._. 
People_NN displaced_VVN by_II insecurity_NN1 and_CC conflict_NN1 face_VV0 special_JJ challenges_NN2 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR an_AT1 estimated_JJ 14_MC million_NNO refugees_NN2 living_VVG outside_II their_APPGE country_NN1 of_IO citizenship_NN1 ,_, representing_VVG about_RG 7_MC percent_NNU of_IO the_AT world_NN1 's_GE migrants_NN2 ._. 
Most_DAT remain_VV0 near_II the_AT country_NN1 they_PPHS2 fled_VVD ,_, typically_RR living_VVG in_II camps_NN2 until_CS conditions_NN2 at_II home_NN1 allow_VV0 their_APPGE return_NN1 ,_, but_CCB around_RG half_DB a_AT1 million_NNO per_II year_NNT1 travel_NN1 to_II developed_JJ countries_NN2 and_CC seek_VV0 asylum_NN1 there_RL ._. 
A_AT1 much_RR larger_JJR number_NN1 ,_, some_DD 26_MC million_NNO ,_, have_VH0 been_VBN internally_RR displaced_VVN ._. 
They_PPHS2 have_VH0 crossed_VVN no_AT frontiers_NN2 ,_, but_CCB may_VM face_VVI special_JJ difficulties_NN2 away_II21 from_II22 home_NN1 in_II a_AT1 country_NN1 riven_VVN by_II conflict_NN1 or_CC racked_VVN by_II natural_JJ disasters_NN2 ._. 
Another_DD1 vulnerable_JJ group_NN1 consists_VVZ of_IO people_NN --_NN1 mainly_RR young_JJ women_NN2 --_NN1 who_PNQS have_VH0 been_VBN trafficked_VVN ._. 
Often_RR duped_VVN with_IW promises_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 better_JJR life_NN1 ,_, their_APPGE movement_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX one_MC1 of_IO free_JJ will_NN1 but_CCB of_IO duress_NN1 ,_, sometimes_RT accompanied_VVN by_II violence_NN1 and_CC sexual_JJ abuse_NN1 ._. 
In_RR21 general_RR22 ,_, however_RR ,_, people_NN move_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE own_DA volition_NN1 ,_, to_II better-off_JJR places_NN2 ._. 
More_DAR than_CSN three_MC quarters_NN2 of_IO international_JJ migrants_NN2 go_VV0 to_II a_AT1 country_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 higher_JJR level_NN1 of_IO human_JJ development_NN1 than_CSN their_APPGE country_NN1 of_IO origin_NN1 ._. 
Yet_RR they_PPHS2 are_VBR significantly_RR constrained_VVN ,_, both_RR by_II policies_NN2 that_CST impose_VV0 barriers_NN2 to_II entry_NN1 and_CC by_II the_AT resources_NN2 they_PPHS2 have_VH0 available_JJ to_TO enable_VVI their_APPGE move_NN1 ._. 
People_NN in_II poor_JJ countries_NN2 are_VBR the_AT least_RGT mobile_JJ :_: for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, fewer_DAR than_CSN 1_MC1 percent_NNU of_IO Africans_NN2 have_VH0 moved_VVN to_II Europe_NP1 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, history_NN1 and_CC contemporary_JJ evidence_NN1 suggest_VV0 that_DD1 development_NN1 and_CC migration_NN1 go_VV0 hand_NN1 in_II hand_NN1 :_: the_AT median_JJ emigration_NN1 rate_NN1 in_II a_AT1 country_NN1 with_IW low_JJ human_JJ development_NN1 is_VBZ below_RG 4_MC percent_NNU ,_, compared_VVN to_II more_DAR than_CSN 8_MC percent_NNU from_II countries_NN2 with_IW high_JJ levels_NN2 of_IO human_JJ development_NN1 ._. 
Barriers_NN2 to_II movement_NN1 The_AT share_NN1 of_IO international_JJ migrants_NN2 in_II the_AT world_NN1 's_GE population_NN1 has_VHZ remained_VVN remarkably_RR stable_JJ at_II around_RG 3_MC percent_NNU over_II the_AT past_JJ 50_MC years_NNT2 ,_, despite_II factors_NN2 that_CST could_VM have_VHI been_VBN expected_VVN to_TO increase_VVI flows_NN2 ._. 
Demographic_JJ trends_NN2 --_NN1 an_AT1 aging_JJ population_NN1 in_II developed_JJ countries_NN2 and_CC young_JJ ,_, still-rising_JJ populations_NN2 in_II developing_JJ countries_NN2 --_NN1 and_CC growing_JJ employment_NN1 opportunities_NN2 ,_, combined_VVN with_IW cheaper_JJR communications_NN2 and_CC transport_NN1 ,_, have_VH0 increased_VVN the_AT 'demand'_NN1 for_IF migration_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, those_DD2 wishing_VVG to_TO migrate_VVI have_VH0 increasingly_RR come_VVN up_RP against_II government-imposed_JJ barriers_NN2 to_II movement_NN1 ._. 
Over_II the_AT past_JJ century_NNT1 ,_, the_AT number_NN1 of_IO nation_NN1 states_NN2 has_VHZ quadrupled_VVN to_II almost_RR 200_MC ,_, creating_VVG more_DAR borders_NN2 to_TO cross_VVI ,_, while_CS policy_NN1 changes_NN2 have_VH0 further_RRR limited_VVN the_AT scale_NN1 of_IO migration_NN1 even_RR as_CSA barriers_NN2 to_TO trade_VVI fell_NN1 ._. 
Barriers_NN2 to_II mobility_NN1 are_VBR especially_RR high_JJ for_IF people_NN with_IW low_JJ skills_NN2 ,_, despite_II the_AT demand_NN1 for_IF their_APPGE labour_NN1 in_II many_DA2 rich_JJ countries_NN2 ._. 
Policies_NN2 generally_RR favour_VV0 the_AT admission_NN1 of_IO the_AT better_RRR educated_VVN ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 by_II allowing_VVG students_NN2 to_TO stay_VVI after_II graduation_NN1 and_CC inviting_JJ professionals_NN2 to_TO settle_VVI with_IW their_APPGE families_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB governments_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI far_RG more_RGR ambivalent_JJ with_II31 respect_II32 to_II33 low-skilled_JJ workers_NN2 ,_, whose_DDQGE status_NN1 and_CC treatment_NN1 often_RR leave_VV0 much_DA1 to_TO be_VBI desired_VVN ._. 
In_II many_DA2 countries_NN2 ,_, agriculture_NN1 ,_, construction_NN1 ,_, manufacturing_NN1 and_CC service_NN1 sectors_NN2 have_VH0 jobs_NN2 that_CST are_VBR filled_VVN by_II such_DA migrants_NN2 ._. 
Yet_RR governments_NN2 often_RR try_VV0 to_TO rotate_VVI less_RGR educated_JJ people_NN in_II and_CC out_II21 of_II22 the_AT country_NN1 ,_, sometimes_RT treating_VVG temporary_JJ and_CC irregular_JJ workers_NN2 like_II water_NN1 from_II a_AT1 tap_NN1 that_CST can_VM be_VBI turned_VVN on_RP and_CC off_RP at_II will_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 estimated_JJ 50_MC million_NNO people_NN today_RT are_VBR living_VVG and_CC working_VVG abroad_RL with_IW irregular_JJ status_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD countries_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 Thailand_NP1 and_CC the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, tolerate_VV0 large_JJ numbers_NN2 of_IO unauthorized_JJ workers_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 may_VM allow_VVI those_DD2 individuals_NN2 to_TO access_VVI better_RRR paying_VVG jobs_NN2 than_CSN at_II home_NN1 ,_, but_CCB although_CS they_PPHS2 often_RR do_VD0 the_AT same_DA work_NN1 and_CC pay_VV0 the_AT same_DA taxes_NN2 as_CSA local_JJ residents_NN2 ,_, they_PPHS2 may_VM lack_VVI access_NN1 to_II basic_JJ services_NN2 and_CC face_VVI the_AT risk_NN1 of_IO being_VBG deported_VVN ._. 
Some_DD governments_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 those_DD2 of_IO Italy_NP1 and_CC Spain_NP1 ,_, have_VH0 recognized_VVN that_CST unskilled_JJ migrants_NN2 contribute_VV0 to_II their_APPGE societies_NN2 and_CC have_VH0 regularized_VVN the_AT status_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 in_II work_NN1 ,_, while_CS other_JJ countries_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 Canada_NP1 and_CC New_NP1 Zealand_NP1 ,_, have_VH0 well_RR designed_VVN seasonal_JJ migrant_NN1 programmes_NN2 for_IF sectors_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 agriculture_NN1 ._. 
Most_DAT migrants_NN2 ,_, internal_JJ and_CC international_JJ ,_, reap_VV0 gains_NN2 in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO higher_JJR incomes_NN2 ,_, better_JJR access_NN1 to_II education_NN1 and_CC health_NN1 ,_, and_CC improved_JJ prospects_NN2 for_IF their_APPGE children_NN2 While_CS there_EX is_VBZ broad_JJ consensus_NN1 about_II the_AT value_NN1 of_IO skilled_JJ migration_NN1 to_II destination_NN1 countries_NN2 ,_, low-skilled_JJ migrant_NN1 workers_NN2 generate_VV0 much_DA1 controversy_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ widely_RR believed_VVN that_CST ,_, while_CS these_DD2 migrants_NN2 fill_VV0 vacant_JJ jobs_NN2 ,_, they_PPHS2 also_RR displace_VV0 local_JJ workers_NN2 and_CC reduce_VV0 wages_NN2 ._. 
Other_JJ concerns_NN2 posed_VVN by_II migrant_NN1 inflows_NN2 include_VV0 heightened_JJ risk_NN1 of_IO crime_NN1 ,_, added_JJ burdens_NN2 on_II local_JJ services_NN2 and_CC the_AT fear_NN1 of_IO losing_VVG social_JJ and_CC cultural_JJ cohesion_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB these_DD2 concerns_NN2 are_VBR often_RR exaggerated_VVN ._. 
While_CS research_NN1 has_VHZ found_VVN that_DD1 migration_NN1 can_VM ,_, in_II certain_JJ circumstances_NN2 ,_, have_VH0 negative_JJ effects_NN2 on_II locally_RR born_VVN workers_NN2 with_IW comparable_JJ skills_NN2 ,_, the_AT body_NN1 of_IO evidence_NN1 suggests_VVZ that_CST these_DD2 effects_NN2 are_VBR generally_RR small_JJ and_CC may_VM ,_, in_II some_DD contexts_NN2 ,_, be_VBI entirely_RR absent_JJ ._. 
The_AT case_NN1 for_IF mobility_NN1 This_DD1 report_NN1 argues_VVZ that_CST migrants_NN2 boost_VV0 economic_JJ output_NN1 ,_, at_II little_JJ or_CC no_AT cost_NN1 to_II locals_NN2 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, there_EX may_VM be_VBI broader_JJR positive_JJ effects_NN2 ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 when_CS the_AT availability_NN1 of_IO migrants_NN2 for_IF childcare_NN1 allows_VVZ resident_JJ mothers_NN2 to_TO work_VVI outside_II the_AT home_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA migrants_NN2 acquire_VV0 the_AT language_NN1 and_CC other_JJ skills_NN2 needed_VVN to_TO move_VVI up_RP the_AT income_NN1 ladder_NN1 ,_, many_DA2 integrate_VV0 quite_RG naturally_RR ,_, making_VVG fears_NN2 about_II inassimilable_JJ foreigners_NN2 --_JJ similar_JJ to_II those_DD2 expressed_VVN early_RR in_II the_AT 20th_MD century_NNT1 in_II America_NP1 about_II the_AT Irish_JJ ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 --_NN1 seem_VV0 equally_RR unwarranted_JJ with_II31 respect_II32 to_II33 newcomers_NN2 today_RT ._. 
Yet_RR it_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR true_JJ that_CST many_DA2 migrants_NN2 face_VV0 systemic_JJ disadvantages_NN2 ,_, making_VVG it_PPH1 difficult_JJ or_CC impossible_JJ for_IF them_PPHO2 to_TO access_VVI local_JJ services_NN2 on_II equal_JJ terms_NN2 with_IW local_JJ people_NN ._. 
And_CC these_DD2 problems_NN2 are_VBR especially_RR severe_JJ for_IF temporary_JJ and_CC irregular_JJ workers_NN2 ._. 
In_II migrants_NN2 '_GE countries_NN2 of_IO origin_NN1 ,_, the_AT impacts_NN2 of_IO movement_NN1 are_VBR felt_VVN in_II higher_JJR incomes_NN2 and_CC consumption_NN1 ,_, better_JJR education_NN1 and_CC improved_JJ health_NN1 ,_, as_RG well_RR as_CSA at_II a_AT1 broader_JJR cultural_JJ and_CC social_JJ level_NN1 ._. 
Moving_VVG generally_RR brings_VVZ benefits_NN2 ,_, most_RGT directly_RR in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO remittances_NN2 sent_VVN to_II immediate_JJ family_NN1 members_NN2 ._. 
However_RR ,_, the_AT benefits_NN2 are_VBR also_RR spread_VVN more_RGR broadly_RR as_CSA remittances_NN2 are_VBR spent_VVN --_NN1 thereby_RR generating_JJ jobs_NN2 for_IF local_JJ workers_NN2 --_NN1 and_CC as_CSA behaviour_NN1 changes_NN2 in_II31 response_II32 to_II33 ideas_NN2 from_II abroad_RL ._. 
Women_NN2 ,_, in_RR21 particular_RR22 ,_, may_VM be_VBI liberated_VVN from_II traditional_JJ roles_NN2 ._. 
The_AT nature_NN1 and_CC extent_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 impacts_NN2 depend_VV0 on_II who_PNQS moves_VVZ ,_, how_RRQ they_PPHS2 fare_VV0 abroad_RL and_CC whether_CSW they_PPHS2 stay_VV0 connected_VVN to_II their_APPGE roots_NN2 through_II flows_NN2 of_IO money_NN1 ,_, knowledge_NN1 and_CC ideas_NN2 ._. 
Because_CS migrants_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO come_VVI in_II large_JJ numbers_NN2 from_II specific_JJ places_NN2 --_NN1 for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, Kerala_NP1 in_II India_NP1 or_CC Fujian_JJ Province_NN1 in_II China_NP1 --_JJ community-_JJ level_JJ effects_NN2 can_VM typically_RR be_VBI larger_JJR than_CSN national_JJ ones_NN2 ._. 
However_RR ,_, over_II the_AT longer_JJR term_NN1 ,_, the_AT flow_NN1 of_IO ideas_NN2 from_II human_JJ movement_NN1 can_VM have_VHI far-reaching_JJ effects_NN2 on_II social_JJ norms_NN2 and_CC class_NN1 structures_NN2 across_II a_AT1 whole_JJ country_NN1 ._. 
The_AT outflow_NN1 of_IO skills_NN2 is_VBZ sometimes_RT seen_VVN as_CSA negative_JJ ,_, particularly_RR for_IF the_AT delivery_NN1 of_IO services_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 education_NN1 or_CC health_NN1 ._. 
Yet_RR ,_, even_CS21 when_CS22 this_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT case_NN1 ,_, the_AT best_JJT response_NN1 is_VBZ policies_NN2 that_CST address_VV0 underlying_JJ structural_JJ problems_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 low_JJ pay_NN1 ,_, inadequate_JJ financing_NN1 and_CC weak_JJ institutions_NN2 ._. 
Blaming_VVG the_AT loss_NN1 of_IO skilled_JJ workers_NN2 on_II the_AT workers_NN2 themselves_PPX2 largely_RR misses_VVZ the_AT point_NN1 ,_, and_CC restraints_NN2 on_II their_APPGE mobility_NN1 are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI counter-productive_JJ --_NN1 not_XX to_TO mention_VVI the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST they_PPHS2 deny_VV0 the_AT basic_JJ human_JJ right_NN1 to_TO leave_VVI one_PN1 's_GE own_DA country_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, international_JJ migration_NN1 ,_, even_CS21 if_CS22 well_RR managed_VVN ,_, does_VDZ not_XX amount_NN1 to_II a_AT1 national_JJ human_JJ development_NN1 strategy_NN1 ._. 
With_IW few_DA2 exceptions_NN2 (_( mainly_RR small_JJ island_NN1 states_VVZ where_RRQ more_DAR than_CSN 40_MC percent_NNU of_IO inhabitants_NN2 move_VV0 abroad_RL )_) ,_, emigration_NN1 is_VBZ unlikely_JJ to_TO shape_VVI the_AT development_NN1 prospects_NN2 of_IO an_AT1 entire_JJ nation_NN1 ._. 
Migration_NN1 is_VBZ at_RR21 best_RR22 an_AT1 avenue_NN1 that_CST complements_VVZ broader_JJR local_JJ and_CC national_JJ efforts_NN2 to_TO reduce_VVI poverty_NN1 and_CC improve_VVI human_JJ development_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 efforts_NN2 remain_VV0 as_RG critical_JJ as_CSA ever_RR ._. 
At_II the_AT time_NNT1 of_IO writing_NN1 ,_, the_AT world_NN1 is_VBZ undergoing_VVG the_AT most_RGT severe_JJ economic_JJ crisis_NN1 in_RP over_RG half_DB a_AT1 century_NNT1 ._. 
Shrinking_JJ economies_NN2 and_CC layoffs_NN2 are_VBR affecting_VVG millions_NNO2 of_IO workers_NN2 ,_, including_II migrants_NN2 ._. 
We_PPIS2 believe_VV0 that_CST the_AT current_JJ downturn_NN1 should_VM be_VBI seized_VVN as_II an_AT1 opportunity_NN1 to_II institute_NN1 a_AT1 new_JJ deal_NN1 for_IF migrants_NN2 --_JJ one_PN1 that_CST will_VM benefit_VVI workers_NN2 at_II home_NN1 and_CC abroad_RL while_CS guarding_VVG against_II a_AT1 protectionist_JJ backlash_NN1 ._. 
With_IW recovery_NN1 ,_, many_DA2 of_IO the_AT same_DA underlying_JJ trends_NN2 that_CST have_VH0 been_VBN driving_JJ ovement_NN1 during_II the_AT past_JJ half-century_NNT1 will_VM resurface_VVI ,_, attracting_VVG more_DAR people_NN to_TO move_VVI ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ vital_JJ that_CST governments_NN2 put_VVN in_II place_NN1 the_AT necessary_JJ measures_NN2 to_TO prepare_VVI for_IF this_DD1 ._. 
