In_II a_AT1 work_NN1 that_CST aims_VVZ to_TO consider_VVI and_CC ascertain_VVI how_RGQ human_JJ beings_NN2 ought_VMK to_TO carry_VVI on_RP in_II their_APPGE personal_JJ lives_NN2 ,_, social_JJ affairs_NN2 ,_, and_CC public_JJ policies_NN2 ,_, the_AT question_NN1 of_IO whether_CSW it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO be_VBI objective_JJ about_II such_DA matters_NN2 is_VBZ vital_JJ ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ why_RRQ the_AT introduction_NN1 to_II this_DD1 book_NN1 addresses_VVZ whether_CSW we_PPIS2 can_VM make_VVI objective_JJ --_NN1 including_II ethical_JJ ,_, moral_JJ ,_, and_CC political_JJ --_JJ value_NN1 judgments_NN2 ._. 
Are_VBR we_PPIS2 able_JK to_TO make_VVI objective_JJ moral_JJ judgments_NN2 ?_? 
By_II "_" objective_NN1 ,_, "_" I_PPIS1 mean_VV0 "_" supportable_JJ by_II reference_NN1 to_II facts_NN2 about_II the_AT world_NN1 in_II contrast_NN1 to_II what_DDQ we_PPIS2 may_VM feel_VVI ,_, desire_NN1 ,_, wish_VV0 ,_, or_CC hope_VV0 for_IF ,_, vis-a-vis_II those_DD2 facts_NN2 ._. "_" 
By_II "_" moral_JJ judgments_NN2 ,_, "_" I_PPIS1 mean_VV0 ,_, broadly_RR ,_, "_" judgments_NN2 pertaining_II21 to_II22 how_RGQ human_JJ beings_NN2 ought_VMK to_TO conduct_VVI themselves_PPX2 ,_, how_RRQ their_APPGE institutions_NN2 should_VM be_VBI set_VVN up_RP ,_, and_RR31 so_RR32 forth_RR33 ._. "_" 
This_DD1 perennial_JJ philosophical_JJ --_NN1 yet_RR popular_JJ --_JJ topic_NN1 needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI revisited_VVN often_RR because_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ central_JJ to_II human_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
Judgments_NN2 about_II how_RRQ people_NN conduct_VV0 themselves_PPX2 ,_, about_II the_AT institutions_NN2 they_PPHS2 devise_VV0 --_NN1 in_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, about_II whether_CSW they_PPHS2 are_VBR doing_VDG what_DDQ is_VBZ right_JJ or_CC what_DDQ is_VBZ wrong_JJ --_NN1 are_VBR ubiquitous_JJ ._. 
Even_CS21 if_CS22 one_PN1 complains_VVZ that_CST people_NN are_VBR judgmental_JJ or_CC that_CST they_PPHS2 mistakenly_RR think_VV0 they_PPHS2 can_VM make_VVI true_JJ moral_JJ judgments_NN2 or_CC assessments_NN2 (_( when_CS in_II fact_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ supposedly_RR unjustified_JJ )_) ,_, one_PN1 is_VBZ making_VVG judgments_NN2 that_CST one_PN1 intends_VVZ to_TO have_VHI taken_VVN seriously_RR ,_, to_TO be_VBI correct_JJ ,_, even_RR as_CSA one_PN1 is_VBZ rejecting_VVG the_AT wisdom_NN1 of_IO doing_VDG so_RR ._. 
"_" You_PPY should_VM n't_XX think_VVI moral_JJ judgments_NN2 are_VBR objective_JJ "_" is_VBZ itself_PPX1 a_AT1 moral_JJ judgment_NN1 ,_, albeit_CS one_PN1 pertaining_II21 to_II22 a_AT1 special_JJ undertaking_NN1 ,_, one_MC1 of_IO restricted_JJ scope_NN1 ._. 
Nevertheless_RR ,_, those_DD2 making_VVG it_PPH1 seem_VVI to_TO treat_VVI it_PPH1 as_RG objectively_RR true_JJ ._. 
In_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, moral_JJ skeptics_NN2 or_CC relativists_NN2 ,_, too_RR ,_, criticize_VV0 those_DD2 who_PNQS disagree_VV0 with_IW them_PPHO2 ,_, making_VVG note_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE opponents_NN2 '_GE supposedly_RR misguided_JJ thinking_NN1 about_II this_DD1 metaethical_JJ issue_NN1 ._. 
And_CC they_PPHS2 expect_VV0 that_CST they_PPHS2 are_VBR correct_JJ when_CS they_PPHS2 do_VD0 so_RR --_JJ objectively_RR right_RR ,_, that_DD1 is_VBZ ._. 
Some_DD may_VM hold_VVI that_CST such_DA judgments_NN2 are_VBR no_AT more_DAR than_CSN expressions_NN2 of_IO what_DDQ is_VBZ desirable_JJ --_NN1 that_REX41 is_REX42 to_REX43 say_REX44 ,_, they_PPHS2 express_VV0 what_DDQ some_DD desire_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB that_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX what_DDQ is_VBZ meant_VVN by_II making_VVG such_DA judgments_NN2 ;_; these_DD2 judgments_NN2 are_VBR taken_VVN to_TO be_VBI true_JJ and_CC ,_, thus_RR ,_, objective_NN1 ._. 
The_AT mere_JJ expression_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 desire_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX amount_NN1 to_II a_AT1 criticism_NN1 ._. 
Yet_RR such_DA dialectical_JJ points_NN2 are_VBR not_XX sufficient_JJ for_IF making_VVG a_AT1 case_NN1 for_IF the_AT objectivity_NN1 of_IO moral_JJ judgments_NN2 --_NN1 that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, to_TO defend_VVI the_AT position_NN1 that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO gain_VVI knowledge_NN1 of_IO (_( and_CC demonstrate_VVI the_AT truth_NN1 or_CC falsity_NN1 of_IO )_) moral_JJ judgments_NN2 as_CSA we_PPIS2 do_VD0 with_IW other_JJ judgments_NN2 (_( for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, those_DD2 in_II physics_NN1 ,_, biology_NN1 ,_, engineering_NN1 ,_, or_CC drivers_NN2 '_GE education_NN1 )_) ._. 
All_DB that_CST these_DD2 dialectical_JJ points_NN2 make_VV0 evident_JJ is_VBZ that_CST denying_VVG the_AT objectivity_NN1 of_IO moral_JJ and_CC other_JJ evaluations_NN2 leads_VVZ to_II self-referential_JJ inconsistency_NN1 ;_; if_CS this_DD1 is_VBZ so_RR ,_, then_RT perhaps_RR what_DDQ follows_VVZ is_VBZ only_RR that_CST we_PPIS2 ought_VMK to_TO remain_VVI silent_JJ on_II the_AT topic_NN1 (_( as_CSA Wittgenstein_NP1 appears_VVZ to_TO have_VHI believed_VVN )_) ._. 
One_MC1 promising_JJ approach_NN1 in_II defense_NN1 of_IO objectivity_NN1 in_II ethics_NN is_VBZ to_TO work_VVI out_RP a_AT1 sound_NN1 ,_, naturalistic_JJ idea_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ constitutes_VVZ the_AT human_JJ good_JJ ,_, and_CC then_RT to_TO demonstrate_VVI that_DD1 certain_JJ ways_NN2 of_IO acting_VVG will_VM advance_VVI this_DD1 good_JJ ,_, while_CS others_NN2 will_VM thwart_VVI it_PPH1 ._. 
If_CS one_PN1 can_VM show_VVI that_CST there_EX are_VBR such_DA ways_NN2 of_IO acting_VVG ,_, this_DD1 would_VM satisfy_VVI the_AT requirement_NN1 of_IO objectivity_NN1 ,_, since_RR whether_CSW certain_JJ ways_NN2 of_IO acting_VVG advance_VV0 the_AT good_JJ or_CC not_XX is_VBZ a_AT1 matter_NN1 capable_JJ of_IO being_VBG established_VVN ,_, shown_VVN to_TO be_VBI true_RR based_VVN on_II evidence_NN1 and_CC argument_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 introduction_NN1 I_PPIS1 plan_VV0 to_TO deploy_VVI a_AT1 neo-Aristotelian_JJ naturalism_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO keep_VVI the_AT "_" is-ought_VMK "_" gap_NN1 at_II bay_NN1 and_CC place_VV0 morality_NN1 on_II an_AT1 objective_JJ footing_NN1 ._. 
I_PPIS1 will_VM do_VDI this_DD1 with_IW the_AT aid_NN1 of_IO the_AT ideas_NN2 of_IO Ayn_NP1 Rand_NP1 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 (_( but_CCB only_RR by_II implication_NN1 and_CC association_NN1 )_) those_DD2 of_IO Martha_NP1 Nussbaum_NP1 and_CC Philippa_NP1 Foot_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ to_TO mention_VVI at_II the_AT outset_NN1 that_CST ,_, in_II defending_VVG the_AT objectivity_NN1 of_IO moral_JJ judgments_NN2 ,_, one_PN1 is_VBZ not_XX defending_VVG the_AT universal_JJ applicability_NN1 of_IO all_DB of_IO them_PPHO2 ,_, except_CS where_CS identical_JJ circumstances_NN2 obtain_VV0 ._. 
Thus_RR ,_, if_CS in_II fact_NN1 Mrs._NNB George_NP1 ought_VMK to_TO send_VVI her_APPGE child_NN1 to_TO take_VVI piano_NN1 lessons_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 does_VDZ not_XX follow_VVI that_CST everyone_PN1 should_VM ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ irrelevant_JJ that_CST the_AT truth_NN1 of_IO such_DA a_AT1 claim_NN1 is_VBZ universally_RR ascertainable_JJ ;_; the_AT point_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST it_PPH1 does_VDZ not_XX have_VHI to_TO apply_VVI universally_RR ,_, to_II all_DB moral_JJ agents_NN2 ,_, although_CS there_EX may_VM be_VBI some_DD very_RG basic_JJ moral_JJ judgments_NN2 that_CST are_VBR universally_RR applicable_JJ in_II this_DD1 sense_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 already_RR seen_VVN ,_, this_DD1 debate_NN1 ultimately_RR takes_VVZ us_PPIO2 back_RP to_II a_AT1 discussion_NN1 of_IO human_JJ nature_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA things_NN2 stand_VV0 ,_, most_DAT of_IO the_AT officials_NN2 involved_JJ in_II working_VVG to_TO abate_VVI poverty_NN1 embrace_VV0 some_DD combination_NN1 of_IO views_NN2 ,_, seeing_VVG people_NN as_II both_DB2 casualties_NN2 of_IO their_APPGE harsh_JJ circumstances_NN2 and_CC individuals_NN2 capable_JJ of_IO overcoming_VVG such_DA circumstances_NN2 if_CS political_JJ and_CC legal_JJ infrastructures_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX hamper_VVI them_PPHO2 ._. 
Perhaps_RR the_AT most_RGT novel_JJ approach_NN1 in_II political_JJ theory_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO the_AT communitarians_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 Charles_NP1 Taylor_NP1 ,_, whose_DDQGE analysis_NN1 makes_VVZ it_PPH1 difficult_JJ to_TO involve_VVI any_DD strong_JJ conception_NN1 of_IO human_JJ rights_NN2 ._. 
Taylor_NP1 insists_VVZ that_CST we_PPIS2 belong_VV0 to_II our_APPGE communities_NN2 and_CC thus_RR that_CST the_AT lives_NN2 we_PPIS2 have_VH0 are_VBR not_XX actually_RR ours_PPGE --_JJ we_PPIS2 do_VD0 not_XX ,_, thus_RR ,_, have_VH0 the_AT right_NN1 to_II life_NN1 ,_, let_VVD alone_RR to_II liberty_NN1 and_CC property_NN1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 speaks_VVZ approvingly_RR of_IO "_" a_AT1 principle_NN1 which_DDQ states_VVZ our_APPGE obligation_NN1 as_CSA men_NN2 to_TO belong_VVI to_II or_CC sustain_VV0 society_NN1 ,_, or_CC a_AT1 society_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 certain_JJ type_NN1 ,_, or_CC to_TO obey_VVI authority_NN1 or_CC an_AT1 authority_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 certain_JJ type_NN1 ._. "_" 
According_II21 to_II22 this_DD1 view_NN1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ more_DAR than_CSN just_RR a_AT1 moral_JJ responsibility_NN1 to_TO be_VBI generous_JJ and_CC charitable_JJ toward_II those_DD2 who_PNQS are_VBR poor_JJ ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ an_AT1 actually_RR enforceable_JJ legal_JJ obligation_NN1 to_TO contribute_VVI to_II the_AT community_NN1 of_IO which_DDQ the_AT poor_JJ are_VBR members_NN2 ,_, thus_RR alleviating_VVG their_APPGE poverty_NN1 not_XX only_RR within_II one_PN1 's_GE own_DA region_NN1 of_IO the_AT world_NN1 but_CCB also_RR in_II the_AT human_JJ community_NN1 as_II such_DA ,_, globally_RR ,_, as_CSA per_II the_AT remark_NN1 quoted_VVN above_RL from_II Peter_NP1 Unger_NP1 ._. 
The_AT classical_JJ liberal_JJ or_CC libertarian_JJ tradition_NN1 of_IO human_JJ rights_NN2 theorizing_VVG ,_, especially_RR that_DD1 which_DDQ emerges_VVZ from_II John_NP1 Locke_NP1 and_CC ,_, more_RGR recently_RR ,_, Robert_NP1 Nozick_NP1 ,_, Ayn_NP1 Rand_NP1 ,_, and_CC some_DD neo-Aristotelians_NN2 (_( such_II21 as_II22 Eric_NP1 Mack_NP1 ,_, Douglas_NP1 B._NP1 Rasmussen_NP1 and_CC Douglas_NP1 J._NP1 Den_NN1 Uyl_NN1 )_) ,_, would_VM take_VVI issue_NN1 with_IW this_DD1 approach_NN1 and_CC reaffirm_VVI ,_, based_VVN on_II various_JJ philosophical_JJ arguments_NN2 ,_, the_AT vital_JJ importance_NN1 of_IO negative_JJ individual_JJ human_JJ rights_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 would_VM hold_VVI that_CST respecting_II and_CC protecting_VVG these_DD2 would_VM serve_VVI most_RGT effectively_RR to_TO counter_VVI poverty_NN1 (_( although_CS never_RR guaranteed_VVN against_II all_DB of_IO it_PPH1 ,_, since_CS individuals_NN2 can_VM ,_, even_CS21 when_CS22 they_PPHS2 have_VH0 the_AT right_NN1 to_TO work_VVI ,_, neglect_VV0 to_TO exercise_VVI this_DD1 right_NN1 wisely_RR and_CC prudently_RR ,_, and_CC because_CS nature_NN1 is_VBZ often_RR simply_RR merciless_JJ )_) ._. 
In_II the_AT last_MD part_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 chapter_NN1 ,_, these_DD2 points_NN2 are_VBR elaborated_VVN ._. 
For_IF the_AT past_JJ two_MC hundred_NNO years_NNT2 ,_, a_AT1 debate_NN1 has_VHZ flourished_VVN in_II political_JJ philosophy_NN1 regarding_II what_DDQ kinds_NN2 of_IO rights_NN2 human_JJ beings_NN2 possess_VV0 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX the_AT debate_NN1 about_II whether_CSW we_PPIS2 have_VH0 any_DD rights_NN2 at_RR21 all_RR22 ._. 
Instead_RR ,_, the_AT rights_NN2 versus_II socalled-rights_NN2 debate_NN1 is_VBZ about_II whether_CSW human_JJ beings_NN2 have_VH0 rights_NN2 other_II21 than_II22 the_AT negative_JJ rights_NN2 not_XX to_TO be_VBI killed_VVN ,_, assaulted_VVD ,_, robbed_VVD ,_, or_CC silenced_VVD ._. 
Locke_NP1 ,_, the_AT major_JJ seventeenth-century_JJ individual-rights_NN2 theorist_NN1 ,_, argued_VVD that_CST we_PPIS2 all_DB possess_VV0 the_AT natural_JJ negative_JJ right_NN1 not_XX to_TO be_VBI intruded_VVN upon_II ._. 
Because_II21 of_II22 the_AT kind_NN1 of_IO beings_NN2 we_PPIS2 are_VBR ,_, we_PPIS2 require_VV0 certain_JJ social_JJ conditions_NN2 ,_, including_II respect_NN1 for_IF our_APPGE negative_JJ rights_NN2 ,_, when_CS we_PPIS2 form_VV0 communities_NN2 ._. 
Locke_NP1 's_GE critics_NN2 argued_VVD that_CST the_AT negative_JJ rights_NN2 he_PPHS1 identified_VVD are_VBR only_RR some_DD of_IO the_AT rights_NN2 that_CST we_PPIS2 possess_VV0 ._. 
Such_DA critics_NN2 maintain_VV0 that_CST we_PPIS2 also_RR have_VH0 so-called_JJ positive_JJ rights_NN2 whereby_RRQ others_NN2 must_VM not_XX only_RR refrain_VVI from_II intruding_VVG upon_II us_PPIO2 but_CCB also_RR owe_VV0 us_PPIO2 positive_JJ services_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 welfare_NN1 ,_, health_NN1 care_NN1 ,_, and_CC education_NN1 ._. 
Positive-rights_NN2 theorists_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX simply_RR argue_VVI that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ decent_JJ and_CC morally_RR proper_JJ for_IF others_NN2 to_TO voluntarily_RR help_VVI us_PPIO2 when_RRQ we_PPIS2 are_VBR in_II need_NN1 ._. 
Rather_RR ,_, they_PPHS2 argue_VV0 that_CST ,_, just_RR as_CSA others_NN2 may_VM be_VBI forced_VVN to_TO desist_VVI from_II murdering_VVG or_CC assaulting_VVG us_PPIO2 ,_, they_PPHS2 can_VM also_RR be_VBI forced_VVN to_TO give_VVI us_PPIO2 whatever_DDQV help_NN1 they_PPHS2 can_VM --_NN1 including_II their_APPGE work_NN1 ,_, their_APPGE earnings_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT fruits_NN2 of_IO their_APPGE talents_NN2 ._. 
Since_CS Marx_NP1 ,_, other_JJ people_NN have_VH0 softened_VVN his_APPGE hard-line_JJ collectivist_NN1 position_NN1 into_II a_AT1 so-called_JJ kinder_JJR and_CC gentler_JJR theory_NN1 of_IO positive_JJ rights_NN2 ._. 
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 ,_, some_DD people_NN misunderstand_VV0 the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO positive_JJ rights_NN2 ,_, thinking_VVG that_CST they_PPHS2 simply_RR arise_VV0 from_II an_AT1 elaboration_NN1 of_IO negative_JJ rights_NN2 ._. 
When_CS newspaper_NN1 columnist_NN1 George_NP1 Will_NP1 noted_VVD that_CST one_MC1 government_NN1 official_NN1 leaned_VVN toward_II authoritarianism_NN1 by_II inventing_VVG positive_JJ rights_NN2 not_XX listed_VVN in_II the_AT Constitution_NN1 ,_, someone_PN1 criticized_VVD Mr._NNB Will_NP1 thus_RR :_: "_" The_AT Constitution_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN amended_VVN in_II the_AT past_JJ to_TO include_VVI the_AT 'right'_JJ to_TO vote_VVI for_IF African-Americans_NN2 ,_, women_NN2 ,_, and_CC eighteen-year-olds_NN2 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 the_AT right_NN1 to_TO be_VBI free_JJ from_II slavery_NN1 and_CC involuntary_JJ servitude_NN1 ._. "_" 
The_AT idea_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST ,_, since_CS such_DA so-called_JJ positive_JJ rights_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN added_VVN to_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Constitution_NN1 ,_, others_NN2 may_VM also_RR be_VBI added_VVN ._. 
However_RR ,_, such_DA amendments_NN2 are_VBR drastically_RR different_JJ from_II the_AT amendments_NN2 advocated_VVN by_II many_DA2 big-government_JJ theorists_NN2 ._. 
Many_DA2 of_IO the_AT amendments_NN2 are_VBR simple_JJ elaborations_NN2 for_IF more_RGR specialized_JJ cases_NN2 of_IO the_AT basic_JJ negative_JJ rights_NN2 everyone_PN1 possesses_VVZ by_II nature_NN1 ._. 
The_AT right_NN1 to_TO vote_VVI is_VBZ an_AT1 application_NN1 of_IO the_AT right_NN1 to_II liberty_NN1 in_II the_AT arena_NN1 of_IO political_JJ action_NN1 :_: government_NN1 may_VM not_XX prevent_VVI any_DD adult_NN1 citizen_NN1 from_II fully_RR participating_VVG in_II the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
The_AT right_NN1 to_TO be_VBI free_JJ from_II slavery_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 simple_JJ corollary_NN1 of_IO the_AT negative_JJ right_NN1 to_II liberty_NN1 ,_, as_CSA is_VBZ the_AT right_NN1 to_TO be_VBI free_JJ from_II involuntary_JJ servitude_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ ,_, however_RR ,_, difficult_JJ to_TO disguise_VVI the_AT open_JJ ,_, unabashed_JJ "_" selfishness_NN1 "_" of_IO a_AT1 profession_NN1 that_CST aims_VVZ to_TO produce_VVI wealth_NN1 for_IF those_DD2 for_IF whom_PNQO it_PPH1 is_VBZ conducted_VVN ,_, the_AT clients_NN2 ,_, as_RR31 it_RR32 were_RR33 ,_, of_IO those_DD2 who_PNQS hire_VV0 managers_NN2 of_IO corporations_NN2 ,_, the_AT small_JJ entrepreneurs_NN2 ,_, and_RR31 so_RR32 forth_RR33 ._. 
At_II even_RR the_AT simplest_JJT level_JJ --_NN1 say_VV0 ,_, when_CS one_PN1 shops_VVZ at_II the_AT grocery_NN1 store_NN1 ,_, the_AT farmer_NN1 's_GE market_NN1 ,_, or_CC the_AT mall_NN1 ,_, commerce_NN1 is_VBZ directed_VVN ,_, unapologetically_RR ,_, toward_II making_VVG a_RR31 good_RR32 deal_RR33 for_IF the_AT various_JJ parties_NN2 involved_VVD ._. 
Moreover_RR ,_, because_II21 of_II22 its_APPGE focus_NN1 on_II worldly_JJ ,_, mundane_JJ goods_NN2 ,_, commerce_NN1 and_CC business_NN1 have_VH0 always_RR been_VBN found_VVN to_TO be_VBI something_PN1 of_IO a_AT1 distraction_NN1 from_II what_DDQ is_VBZ deemed_VVN to_TO be_VBI more_RGR important_JJ ,_, namely_REX ,_, preparing_VVG for_IF the_AT afterlife_NN1 ,_, readying_VVG one_PN1 's_GE soul_NN1 for_IF everlasting_JJ salvation_NN1 ._. 
Of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, this_DD1 view_NN1 of_IO commerce_NN1 and_CC business_NN1 as_CSA being_VBG exclusively_RR concerned_JJ with_IW one_PN1 's_GE own_DA welfare_NN1 and_CC advantage_NN1 is_VBZ itself_PPX1 problematic_JJ since_CS ,_, for_IF millions_NNO2 of_IO people_NN ,_, obtaining_VVG wealth_NN1 for_IF themselves_PPX2 amounts_VVZ to_II but_CCB a_AT1 first_MD step_NN1 in_II the_AT allocation_NN1 and_CC distribution_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 wealth_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 need_NN1 but_CCB consider_VV0 such_DA highly_RR visible_JJ wealthy_JJ individuals_NN2 as_CSA Andrew_NP1 Carnegie_NP1 ,_, Andrew_NP1 Mellon_NP1 ,_, Bill_NP1 Gates_NP1 ,_, and_CC Warren_NP1 Buffet_NN1 ,_, to_TO start_VVI with_IW ,_, and_CC then_RT nearly_RR anyone_PN1 who_PNQS is_VBZ prosperous_JJ ,_, to_TO realize_VVI that_DD1 personal_JJ wealth_NN1 is_VBZ very_RG often_RR spread_VVN out_RP to_TO support_VVI a_AT1 large_JJ "_" stakeholder_NN1 "_" community_NN1 ,_, directly_RR or_CC indirectly_RR --_JJ family_NN1 and_CC friends_NN2 ,_, organizations_NN2 being_VBG chosen_VVN for_IF philanthropic_JJ benefit_NN1 ,_, causes_VVZ involving_VVG artistic_JJ ,_, cultural_JJ ,_, and/or_CC scientific_JJ projects_NN2 ,_, and_CC ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, employees_NN2 ,_, subcontractors_NN2 ,_, and_CC their_APPGE families_NN2 and_CC associates_NN2 who_PNQS benefit_VV0 from_II the_AT distribution_NN1 of_IO personal_JJ wealth_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB the_AT idea_NN1 tends_VVZ to_TO be_VBI seen_VVN as_CSA rank_JJ absurdity_NN1 by_II most_DAT Westerners_NN2 because_CS their_APPGE traditions_NN2 --_NN1 based_VVN on_II elaborate_JJ philosophical_JJ and_CC related_JJ argumentation_NN1 --_NN1 tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI individualistic_JJ ._. 
Most_DAT do_VD0 n't_XX accept_VVI the_AT collectivist_NN1 notion_NN1 that_CST has_VHZ treated_VVN entire_JJ societies_NN2 as_CS21 if_CS22 all_DB members_NN2 were_VBDR guilty_JJ for_IF the_AT deeds_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 few_DA2 among_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
In_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, they_PPHS2 reject_VV0 the_AT idea_NN1 of_IO collective_JJ guilt_NN1 and_CC tend_VV0 to_TO eschew_VVI class_NN1 analysis_NN1 and_CC ethnic_JJ and_CC racial_JJ condemnation_NN1 ._. 
In_II conclusion_NN1 ,_, the_AT fundamental_JJ difference_NN1 between_II at_RR21 least_RR22 those_DD2 in_II the_AT East_ND1 on_II whom_PNQO the_AT world_NN1 in_II the_AT early_JJ twenty-first_MD century_NNT1 is_VBZ very_RG much_RR focused_VVN and_CC those_DD2 in_II the_AT Western_JJ tradition_NN1 of_IO ethics_NN and_CC morals_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST the_AT latter_DA tend_VV0 --_NN1 in_II the_AT main_JJ though_CS by_RR31 no_RR32 means_RR33 universally_RR --_JJ to_TO view_VVI individuals_NN2 as_CSA responsible_JJ for_IF their_APPGE conduct_NN1 and_CC capable_JJ of_IO choosing_VVG between_II right_NN1 and_CC wrong_JJ ,_, and_CC their_APPGE moral_JJ life_NN1 would_VM be_VBI demolished_VVN if_CS we_PPIS2 forced_VVD them_PPHO2 to_TO do_VDI what_DDQ is_VBZ really_RR ,_, actually_RR morality_NN1 right_NN1 (_( apart_II21 from_II22 what_DDQ is_VBZ required_VVN for_IF the_AT preservation_NN1 of_IO the_AT right_NN1 of_IO individuals_NN2 to_TO make_VVI their_APPGE own_DA choices_NN2 regarding_II their_APPGE own_DA peaceful_JJ conduct_NN1 )_) ._. 
Once_CS one_PN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 adult_NN1 ,_, one_PN1 's_GE moral_JJ or_CC immoral_JJ conduct_NN1 is_VBZ one_PN1 's_GE responsibility_NN1 ,_, not_XX anyone_PN1 else_RR 's_GE ._. 
And_CC this_DD1 assumes_VVZ that_CST every_AT1 intact_JJ human_JJ being_NN1 must_VM be_VBI free_JJ to_TO choose_VVI ._. 
Other_JJ societies_NN2 ,_, especially_RR the_AT ones_NN2 that_CST I_PPIS1 've_VH0 focused_VVN upon_II ,_, do_VD0 n't_XX have_VHI this_DD1 conviction_NN1 widely_RR enough_RR embraced_VVN throughout_II their_APPGE culture_NN1 and_CC through_II their_APPGE legal_JJ and_CC political_JJ tradition_NN1 ._. 
That_DD1 in_RR21 part_RR22 explains_VVZ our_APPGE major_JJ differences_NN2 between_II the_AT dominant_JJ ethical_JJ outlook_NN1 in_II the_AT West_ND1 and_CC much_DA1 of_IO the_AT Middle_JJ East_ND1 ._. 
