Turbocharging_VVG The_AT Brain_NN1 Will_VM a_AT1 pill_NN1 at_II breakfast_NN1 improve_VV0 concentration_NN1 and_CC memory_NN1 --_NN1 and_CC will_VM it_PPH1 do_VDI so_RR without_IW long-term_JJ detriment_NN1 to_II your_APPGE health_NN1 ?_? 
The_AT symbol_NN1 H+_FO is_VBZ the_AT code_NN1 sign_NN1 used_VVN by_II some_DD futurists_NN2 to_TO denote_VVI an_AT1 enhanced_JJ version_NN1 of_IO humanity_NN1 ._. 
The_AT plus_NN1 version_NN1 of_IO the_AT human_JJ race_NN1 would_VM deploy_VVI a_AT1 mix_NN1 of_IO advanced_JJ technologies_NN2 ,_, including_II stem_NN1 cells_NN2 ,_, robotics_NN2 ,_, cognition-enhancing_JJ drugs_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT like_JJ ,_, to_TO overcome_VVI basic_JJ mental_JJ and_CC physical_JJ limitations_NN2 ._. 
The_AT notion_NN1 of_IO enhancing_VVG mental_JJ functions_NN2 by_II gulping_VVG down_RP a_AT1 pill_NN1 that_CST improves_VVZ attention_NN1 ,_, memory_NN1 and_CC planning_VVG --_NN1 the_AT very_JJ foundations_NN2 of_IO cognition_NN1 --_NN1 is_VBZ no_RR21 longer_RR22 just_RR a_AT1 fantasy_NN1 shared_VVN by_II futurists_NN2 ._. 
The_AT 1990s_MC2 ,_, proclaimed_VVN that_DD1 decade_NNT1 of_IO the_AT brain_NN1 by_II President_NNB George_NP1 H._NP1 W._NP1 Bush_NP1 ,_, has_VHZ been_VBN followed_VVN by_II what_DDQ might_VM be_VBI labeled_VVN "_" the_AT decade_NNT1 of_IO the_AT better_JJR brain_NN1 ._. "_" 
Obsession_NN1 with_IW cognitive_JJ enhancers_NN2 is_VBZ evidenced_VVN in_II news_NN1 articles_NN2 hailing_VVG the_AT arrival_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ are_VBR variously_RR called_VVN smart_JJ drugs_NN2 ,_, neuroenhancers_NN2 ,_, nootriopics_NN2 or_CC even_RR "_" Viagra_NP1 for_IF the_AT brain_NN1 ._. "_" 
From_II this_DD1 perspective_NN1 ,_, an_AT1 era_NN1 of_IO enhancement_NN1 has_VHZ already_RR arrived_VVN ._. 
College_NN1 students_NN2 routinely_RR borrow_VV0 a_AT1 few_DA2 pills_NN2 from_II a_AT1 friend_NN1 's_GE Ritalin_NP1 prescription_NN1 to_TO pull_VVI an_AT1 all-nighter_NN1 ._. 
Software_NN1 programmers_NN2 on_II deadline_NN1 or_CC executive_NN1 trying_VVG to_TO maintain_VVI a_AT1 mental_JJ edge_NN1 gobble_VV0 down_RP modafinil_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 newer_JJR generation_NN1 of_IO pick-me-ups_NN2 ._. 
Devotees_NN2 swear_VV0 that_CST the_AT drugs_NN2 do_VD0 more_DAR than_CSN induce_VV0 the_AT wakefulness_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 caramel_NN1 macchiato_NN1 ,_, providing_VVG instead_RR the_AT laserlike_JJ focus_NN1 needed_VVD to_TO absorb_VVI the_AT nuances_NN2 of_IO organic_JJ chemistry_NN1 or_CC explain_VV0 the_AT esoterica_NN1 of_IO collateralized_JJ debt_NN1 obligations_NN2 ._. 
An_AT1 era_NN1 of_IO enhancement_NN1 may_VM also_RR be_VBI advanced_VVN by_II scientists_NN2 and_CC drugmakers_NN2 laboring_VVG to_TO translate_VVI research_NN1 on_II the_AT molecular_JJ basis_NN1 of_IO cognition_NN1 into_II pharmaceuticals_NN2 meant_VVD specifically_RR to_TO improve_VVI mental_JJ performance_NN1 --_NN1 mainly_RR for_IF people_NN suffering_VVG from_II dementias_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB a_AT1 drug_NN1 that_CST works_VVZ for_IF Alzheimer_NP1 's_GE or_CC Parkinson_NP1 's_GE patients_NN2 might_VM inevitably_RR be_VBI prescribed_VVN by_II physicians_NN2 far_RG more_RGR broadly_RR in_II an_AT1 aging_JJ population_NN1 with_IW milder_JJR impairments_NN2 ._. 
Widely_RR publicized_JJ debates_NN2 over_II the_AT ethics_NN of_IO enhancement_NN1 have_VH0 reinforced_VVN the_AT sense_NN1 that_CST pills_NN2 able_JK to_TO improve_VVI cognition_NN1 will_VM one_MC1 day_NNT1 be_VBI available_JJ to_II us_PPIO2 all_DB ._. 
Academic_JJ and_CC news_NN1 articles_NN2 have_VH0 asked_VVN whether_CSW cognitive_JJ enhancers_NN2 already_RR give_VV0 some_DD students_NN2 an_AT1 unfair_JJ advantage_NN1 when_CS taking_VVG college_NN1 entrance_NN1 exams_NN2 or_CC whether_CSW employers_NN2 would_VM step_VVI over_II the_AT line_NN1 if_CS they_PPHS2 required_VVD ingestion_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 chemicals_NN2 to_TO meet_VVI a_AT1 company_NN1 's_GE production_NN1 deadlines_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB even_RR as_CSA articles_NN2 are_VBR published_VVN on_II the_AT "_" boss_NN1 turns_VVZ pusher_NN1 ,_, "_" doubts_NN2 have_VH0 arisen_VVN about_II the_AT reality_NN1 of_IO drugs_NN2 for_IF strengthening_VVG brainpower_NN1 ._. 
Do_VD0 current_JJ drugs_NN2 developed_VVN for_IF attention_NN1 problems_NN2 or_CC excessive_JJ sleepiness_NN1 really_RR allow_VV0 a_AT1 student_NN1 to_TO do_VDI better_RRR on_II an_AT1 exam_NN1 or_CC an_AT1 executive_NN1 to_TO perform_VVI flawlessly_RR under_RG sharp_JJ questioning_NN1 from_II a_AT1 board_NN1 of_IO directors_NN2 ?_? 
Will_VV0 any_DD drug_NN1 that_CST fiddles_NN2 with_IW basic_JJ brain_NN1 functions_NN2 ever_RR be_VBI safe_JJ enough_RR to_TO be_VBI placed_VVN on_II pharmacy_NN1 shelves_NN2 alongside_II nonprescription_NN1 pain_NN1 relievers_VVZ and_CC antacids_NN2 ?_? 
Ethical_JJ Dissonance_NN1 Argumenta_NN1 about_II safety_NN1 ,_, fairness_NN1 and_CC coercion_NN1 aside_RL ,_, demand_NN1 is_VBZ indeed_RR high_JJ for_IF cognitive_JJ enhancers_NN2 that_CST are_VBR otherwise_RR prescribed_VVN for_IF conditions_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 ADHD_NP1 ._. 
Based_VVN on_II government_NN1 data_NN gathered_VVN in_II 2007_MC ,_, more_DAR than_CSN 1.6_MC million_NNO people_NN in_II the_AT U.S._NP1 had_VHD used_VVN prescription_NN1 stimulants_NN2 nonmedically_RR during_II the_AT previous_JJ 12_MC months_NNT2 ._. 
Legal_JJ medicines_NN2 in_II this_DD1 category_NN1 include_VV0 methylphemidate_NN1 (_( Ritalin_NP1 )_) ,_, the_AT amphetamine_NN1 Adderall_NP1 ,_, and_CC modafinil_NN1 (_( Provigil_NP1 )_) ._. 
On_II some_DD campuses_NN2 ,_, one_MC1 quarter_NN1 of_IO students_NN2 have_VH0 reported_VVN using_VVG the_AT drugs_NN2 ._. 
And_CC an_AT1 informal_JJ online_JJ reader_NN1 survey_NN1 by_II Nature_NN1 last_MD year_NNT1 showed_VVD 20_MC percent_NNU of_IO 1,427_MC respondents_NN2 from_II 60_MC countries_NN2 polled_VVN about_II their_APPGE own_DA use_NN1 said_VVD they_PPHS2 had_VHD used_VVN either_RR methylphenidate_VV0 ,_, modafinil_NN1 or_CC beta_NN1 blockers_NN2 (_( the_AT last_MD for_IF stage_NN1 fright_NN1 )_) ._. 
Overall_RR ,_, a_AT1 need_NN1 for_IF improved_JJ concentration_NN1 was_VBDZ the_AT reason_NN1 cited_VVN most_RGT frequently_RR ._. 
People_NN often_RR manage_VV0 to_TO acquire_VVI the_AT drugs_NN2 on_II the_AT Internet_NN1 or_CC from_II doctors_NN2 ,_, who_PNQS can_VM prescribe_VVI medicines_NN2 approved_VVN for_IF one_MC1 purpose_NN1 to_TO treat_VVI something_PN1 else_RR (_( drugmakers_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, can_VM not_XX legally_RR promote_VVI such_DA "_" off_II label_NN1 "_" uses_VVZ )_) ._. 
Ingestion_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 chemicals_NN2 will_VM likely_RR grow_VVI along_II21 with_II22 an_AT1 aging_JJ population_NN1 and_CC an_AT1 increasingly_RR globalized_JJ economy_NN1 ._. 
"_" If_CS you_PPY 're_VBR 65-year-old_JJ living_NN1 in_II Boston_NP1 and_CC your_APPGE retirement_NN1 savings_NN2 have_VH0 decreased_VVN dramatically_RR and_CC you_PPY have_VH0 to_TO stay_VVI on_II the_AT job_NN1 market_NN1 and_CC compete_VVI with_IW a_AT1 23-year-old_JJ in_II Mumbai_JJ to_TO stay_VVI alert_JJ and_CC stay_VVI effective_JJ ,_, you_PPY may_VM feel_VVI pressured_JJ to_TO turn_VVI to_II these_DD2 compounds_NN2 ,_, "_" says_VVZ Zack_NP1 Lynch_NP1 ,_, executive_NN1 director_NN1 of_IO the_AT Neurotechnology_NN1 Industry_NN1 Organization_NN1 ._. 
The_AT recent_JJ push_NN1 for_IF ethical_JJ guidlines_NN2 ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, presumes_VVZ that_CST these_DD2 drugs_NN2 are_VBR better_RRR than_CSN placebos_NN2 and_CC do_VD0 in_II fact_NN1 improve_VV0 some_DD aspect_NN1 of_IO cognition_NN1 ,_, be_VBI it_PPH1 attention_NN1 ,_, memory_NN1 or_CC "_" executive_NN1 function_NN1 "_" (_( planning_NN1 and_CC abstract_JJ reasoning_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 )_) ._. 
Given_CS21 that_CS22 assumption_NN1 ,_, many_DA2 argue_VV0 ,_, it_PPH1 behooves_VVZ ethicists_NN2 to_TO consider_VVI the_AT ramifications_NN2 of_IO the_AT popularity_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 drugs_NN2 ._. 
Such_DA logic_NN1 led_VVN in_II 2002_MC to_II a_AT1 new_JJ academic_JJ discipline_NN1 ,_, neuroethics_NN2 ,_, meant_VVD in_RR21 part_RR22 to_TO address_VVI the_AT moral_JJ and_CC social_JJ questions_NN2 raised_VVN by_II cognition-enhancing_JJ drugs_NN2 and_CC devices_NN2 (_( brain_NN1 implants_NN2 and_CC the_AT like_JJ )_) ._. 
Taking_VVG a_AT1 highly_RR provocative_JJ stand_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 group_NN1 of_IO ethicists_NN2 and_CC neuroscientists_NN2 published_VVD a_AT1 commentary_NN1 in_II Nature_NN1 last_MD year_NNT1 raising_VVG the_AT prospect_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 shift_NN1 away_II21 from_II22 the_AT notion_NN1 of_IO drugs_NN2 as_II a_AT1 treatment_NN1 primarily_RR for_IF illness_NN1 ._. 
The_AT article_NN1 suggested_VVD the_AT possibility_NN1 of_IO making_VVG psychostimulants_NN2 widely_RR available_JJ to_II the_AT albe-minded_JJ to_TO improve_VVI performance_NN1 in_II the_AT classroom_NN1 in_II the_AT classroom_NN1 or_CC the_AT boradroom_NN1 ,_, provided_CS the_AT drugs_NN2 are_VBR judged_VVN to_TO be_VBI safe_JJ and_CC effective_JJ enought_VVN for_IF healthy_JJ people_NN ._. 
Citing_VVG research_NN1 demonstrating_VVG the_AT benefits_NN2 of_IO these_DD2 drugs_NN2 on_II memory_NN1 and_CC various_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO mental_JJ processing_NN1 ,_, the_AT investigators_NN2 equated_VVD pharmaceutical_JJ enhancement_NN1 with_IW "_" education_NN1 ,_, good_JJ health_NN1 habits_NN2 ,_, and_CC information_NN1 technology_NN1 --_NN1 ways_NN2 that_CST our_APPGE uniquely_RR innovative_JJ species_NN tries_VVZ to_TO improve_VVI itself_PPX1 ._. "_" 
Six_MC months_NNT2 later_JJR one_MC1 of_IO the_AT article_NN1 's_GE authors_NN2 ,_, John_NP1 Harris_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 bioethicist_NN1 at_II the_AT Universtiy_NN1 of_IO Manchester_NP1 in_II England_NP1 ,_, went_VVD further_RRR in_II an_AT1 opinion_NN1 piece_NN1 in_II the_AT British_JJ Medical_JJ Journal_NN1 ._. 
Harris_NP1 ,_, editor_NN1 of_IO the_AT Journal_NN1 of_IO Medical_JJ Ethics_NN ,_, and_CC a_AT1 book_NN1 called_VVN Enhancing_VVG Evolution_NN1 ,_, noted_VVD that_CST if_CS methylphenidate_NN1 is_VBZ judged_VVN safe_JJ enough_RR to_TO be_VBI used_VVN in_II children_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 should_VM be_VBI considered_VVN sufficiently_RR innocuous_JJ for_IF consumption_NN1 by_II adults_NN2 interested_JJ in_II turbocharging_VVG their_APPGE brains_NN2 ._. 
In_II a_AT1 later_JJR interview_NN1 ,_, Harris_NP1 said_VVD he_PPHS1 foresaw_VVD a_AT1 gradual_JJ loosening_NN1 of_IO restrictions_NN2 ,_, and_CC if_CS no_AT safety_NN1 problems_NN2 arise_VV0 ,_, the_AT drug_NN1 (_( a_AT1 controlled_JJ substance_NN1 in_II the_AT U.S._NP1 )_) could_VM ultimately_RR became_VVD an_AT1 over-the-counter_JJ purchase_NN1 ,_, like_II asprin_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 musings_NN2 have_VH0 not_XX gone_VVN unchallenged_JJ ._. 
Other_JJ researchers_NN2 and_CC ethicists_NN2 have_VH0 questioned_VVN whether_CSW drugs_NN2 that_CST modulate_VV0 mental_JJ processes_NN2 will_VM ever_RR have_VHI a_AT1 safety_NN1 profile_NN1 that_CST will_VM justify_VVI their_APPGE being_VBG dispensed_VVN in_II the_AT same_DA fashion_NN1 a_AT1 nonprescription_NN1 painkiller_NN1 or_CC coffee_NN1 or_CC tea_NN1 ._. 
"_" People_NN say_VV0 that_CST cognitive_JJ enhancement_NN1 is_VBZ just_RR like_II improving_JJ vision_NN1 by_II wearing_VVG glasses_NN2 ,_, "_" says_VVZ James_NP1 Swanson_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 researcher_NN1 at_II the_AT University_NN1 of_IO Carlifornia_NP1 ,_, Irvine_NP1 ,_, who_PNQS was_VBDZ involved_JJ with_IW clinical_JJ trials_NN2 for_IF both_RR Adderall_NP1 and_CC modafinil_VV0 for_IF ADHD_NN1 ._. 
"_" I_PPIS1 do_VD0 n't_XX think_VVI people_NN understand_VV0 the_AT risks_NN2 that_CST occur_VV0 when_RRQ you_PPY have_VH0 a_AT1 larger_JJR number_NN1 of_IO people_NN accessing_VVG these_DD2 drugs_NN2 ._. 
Some_DD small_JJ percentage_NN1 will_VM likely_RR become_VVI addicted_VVN ,_, and_CC some_DD people_NN may_VM actually_RR see_VVI mental_JJ performance_NN1 decline_NN1 ._. 
That_DD1 's_VBZ the_AT reason_NN1 I_PPIS1 'm_VBM opposed_VVN to_II their_APPGE general_JJ use_NN1 ._. "_" 
Along_II these_DD2 lines_NN2 ,_, the_AT British_JJ Home_NN1 Office_NN1 ,_, the_AT interior_JJ ministry_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ awaiting_VVG a_AT1 report_NN1 from_II an_AT1 advisory_JJ panel_NN1 on_II whether_CSW the_AT potential_JJ harm_NN1 from_II nonmedical_JJ use_NN1 of_IO enhancers_NN2 requires_VVZ new_JJ regulations_NN2 ._. 
Other_JJ scientists_NN2 assert_VV0 that_CST the_AT debate_NN1 may_VM be_VBI moot_JJ because_CS improving_JJ smarts_NN2 might_VM not_XX be_VBI possible_JJ through_II any_DD means_NN but_CCB the_AT tedious_JJ exercise_NN1 of_IO cramming_VVG for_IF a_AT1 calculus_NN1 exam_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD who_PNQS have_VH0 tried_VVN to_TO develop_VVI drugs_NN2 to_TO reverse_VVI the_AT memory_NN1 loss_NN1 of_IO dementia_NN1 doubt_VV0 whether_CSW enhancement_NN1 of_IO the_AT health_NN1 is_VBZ anything_RR21 but_RR22 a_AT1 remote_JJ possibility_NN1 ._. 
"_" I_PPIS1 would_VM not_XX worry_VVI much_RR about_II implications_NN2 of_IO cognitive_JJ enhancers_NN2 in_II the_AT healthy_JJ ,_, because_CS there_EX are_VBR no_AT cognitive_JJ enhancers_NN2 to_TO worry_VVI about_RP ,_, "_" says_VVZ Rusiko_NP1 Bourtchouladze_NP1 ,_, author_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 popular_JJ book_NN1 about_II the_AT science_NN1 of_IO memory_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 researcher_NN1 who_PNQS contributed_VVD to_II the_AT work_NN1 that_CST led_VVD to_II a_AT1 Nobel_NP1 Prize_NN1 for_IF Eric_NP1 R._NP1 Kandel_NP1 in_II 2000_MC ._. 
"_" To_TO talk_VVI about_II cognitive_JJ enhancement_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 's_VBZ too_RR ,_, too_RG early_JJ and_CC these_DD2 drugs_NN2 may_VM not_XX arrive_VVI even_RR in_II our_APPGE lifetime_NNT1 ._. 
There_EX 's_VBZ too_RG much_DA1 noise_NN1 about_II this_DD1 ._. "_" 
In_II this_DD1 view_NN1 ,_, the_AT complex_JJ mix_NN1 of_IO chemical_JJ signals_NN2 ,_, enzymes_NN2 and_CC proteins_NN2 that_CST collaborate_VV0 to_TO form_VVI a_AT1 memory_NN1 creates_VVZ a_AT1 self-regulating_JJ balance_NN1 that_CST resists_VVZ tinkering_VVG unless_CS disrupted_JJ b_ZZ1 disease_NN1 ._. 
The_AT decline_NN1 in_II thought_NN1 processes_NN2 and_CC sense_NN1 of_IO identity_NN1 that_CST comes_VVZ with_IW dementia_NN1 might_VM be_VBI addressable_JJ by_II compensating_VVG for_IF losses_NN2 of_IO key_JJ chemicals_NN2 and_CC might_VM merit_VVI the_AT risk_NN1 of_IO untoward_JJ side_NN1 effects_NN2 from_II drug_NN1 intervention_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB upsetting_VVG the_AT fragile_JJ stasis_NN1 in_II the_AT healthy_JJ could_VM produce_VVI unintended_JJ consequences_NN2 :_: as_RG just_RR one_MC1 example_NN1 ,_, any_DD improvement_NN1 in_II long-term_JJ memory_NN1 (_( the_AT place_NN1 where_RRQ recollections_NN2 of_IO childhood_NN1 and_CC last_MD year_NNT1 's_GE vacation_NN1 reside_VV0 )_) could_VM be_VBI countered_VVN by_II diminished_JJ capacity_NN1 for_IF working_VVG memory_NN1 (_( the_AT mental_JJ scratch_NN1 pad_NN1 where_CS your_APPGE brain_NN1 stores_NN2 a_AT1 telephone_NN1 number_NN1 temporarily_RR )_) ._. 
Some_DD critics_NN2 of_IO those_DD2 who_PNQS argue_VV0 over_RP the_AT ethics_NN of_IO neuroenhancement_NN1 attribute_VV0 the_AT current_JJ flap_NN1 to_II what_DDQ they_PPHS2 call_VV0 "_" speculative_JJ ethics_NN ._. "_" 
This_DD1 tendency_NN1 also_RR besets_VVZ nanotechnology_NN1 and_CC other_JJ technological_JJ endeavors_NN2 in_II which_DDQ ethicists_NN2 ,_, scientists_NN2 and_CC policy_NN1 makers_NN2 are_VBR diverted_VVN by_II discussions_NN2 of_IO the_AT social_JJ implications_NN2 of_IO technologies_NN2 yet_RR to_TO be_VBI invented_VVN ,_, be_VBI they_PPHS2 smart_JJ pills_NN2 or_CC nanorobots_NN2 run_VV0 amok_RR ._. 
"_" A_AT1 significant_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT debate_NN1 on_II human_JJ enhancement_NN1 ..._... suffers_VVZ from_II inflated_JJ expectations_NN2 and_CC technology_NN1 hype_NN1 ,_, "_" notes_VVZ Maarje_JJ Schermer_NN1 of_IO Erasmus_NP1 University_NN1 Rotterdam_NP1 and_CC her_APPGE colleagues_NN2 in_II the_AT journal_NN1 Neuroethics_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 Checkered_JJ History_NN1 The_AT notion_NN1 that_CST existing_JJ drugs_NN2 might_VM enhance_VVI cognition_NN1 in_II the_AT healthy_JJ dates_NN2 back_RP for_IF the_AT better_JJR part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 century_NNT1 and_CC has_VHZ produced_VVN ambiguous_JJ results_NN2 ._. 
Chemist_NN1 Gordon_NP1 Alles_NP2 introduced_VVD amphetamine_NN1 for_IF medical_JJ use_NN1 in_II 1929_MC ,_, a_AT1 synthetic_JJ drug_NN1 chemically_RR similar_JJ to_II the_AT Chinese_JJ herb_NN1 ephedrine_NN1 ._. 
(_( Alles_NN2 also_RR devised_VVD the_AT drug_NN1 Ecstasy_NN1 ,_, another_DD1 amphetamine_NN1 ._. )_) 
Various_JJ forms_NN2 were_VBDR dispensed_VVN on_II both_DB2 sides_NN2 during_II World_NN1 War_NN1 II_MC to_TO keep_VVI soldiers_NN2 awake_JJ and_CC alert_JJ and_CC to_TO bolster_VVI courage_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Germans_NN2 and_CC Japanese_JJ ingested_JJ methamphetamine_NN1 ,_, while_CS the_AT British_JJ and_CC Americans_NN2 used_VVD Benzedrine_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 similar_JJ drug_NN1 to_II Adderall_NP1 ._. 
Scientists_NN2 soon_RR wanted_VVN to_TO know_VVI whether_CSW the_AT perceived_JJ benefit_NN1 in_II performance_NN1 was_VBDZ genuine_JJ ._. 
Psychologists_NN2 assessments_NN2 by_II both_DB2 British_JJ and_CC Americans_NN2 during_II the_AT 1940s_MC2 found_VVD that_CST users_NN2 self-rated_NN1 their_APPGE performances_NN2 highly_RR on_II tests_NN2 that_CST measured_VVD reading_VVG speed_NN1 ,_, multiplication_NN1 and_CC other_JJ factors_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB their_APPGE test_NN1 scores_NN2 ,_, in_II most_DAT tasks_NN2 ,_, were_VBDR no_AT better_JJR than_CSN those_DD2 earned_VVN by_II subjects_NN2 who_PNQS ingested_VVD caffeine_NN1 ._. 
Performance_NN1 ,_, in_II fact_NN1 ,_, could_VM decline_VVI on_II more_RGR complex_JJ tasks_NN2 ._. 
"_" Because_II21 of_II22 their_APPGE mood-elevating_JJ effects_NN2 ,_, amphetamines_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO make_VVI us_PPIO2 feel_VVI we_PPIS2 are_VBR performing_VVG especially_RR well_RR ,_, when_CS in_II fact_NN1 we_PPIS2 are_VBR not_XX ,_, "_" says_VVZ Nicolas_NP1 Rasmussen_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 historian_NN1 of_IO science_NN1 at_II University_NN1 of_IO New_NP1 South_NP1 Wales_NP1 in_II Sydney_NP1 and_CC author_NN1 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 On_II Speed_NN1 (_( New_NP1 York_NP1 University_NN1 Press_NN1 ,_, 2008_MC )_) ._. 
"_" In_II simplistic_JJ lab_NN1 tests_NN2 assessing_VVG performance_NN1 on_II boring_JJ tasks_NN2 ,_, they_PPHS2 boost_VV0 scores_NN2 by_II increasing_JJ intelligence_NN1 ,_, but_CCB that'_VV0 not_XX the_AT same_DA as_CSA taking_VVG a_AT1 law_NN1 school_NN1 exam_NN1 or_CC flying_VVG in_II combat_NN1 ._. "_" 
Methylphenidate_VV0 ,_, a_AT1 close_JJ chemical_JJ relative_NN1 of_IO the_AT amphetamines_NN2 ,_, emerged_VVD in_II 1956_MC as_II a_AT1 supposedly_RR milder_JJR and_CC gentle_JJ form_NN1 of_IO stimulant_NN1 (_( "_" the_AT happy_JJ medium_NN1 in_II psychomotor_NN1 stimulation_NN1 ,_, "_" in_II the_AT words_NN2 of_IO the_AT drugmaker_NN1 )_) ,_, but_CCB both_RR its_APPGE biochemical_JJ and_CC psychological_JJ effects_NN2 are_VBR similar_JJ when_CS adjusted_VVN for_IF dose_NN1 ._. 
The_AT halcyon_NN1 era_NN1 for_IF amphetamines_NN2 occurred_VVD nearly_RR 40_MC years_NNT2 ago_RA ._. 
U.S._NP1 consumption_NN1 reached_VVD as_RG much_DA1 as_CSA 10_MC billion_NNO pills_NN2 in_II the_AT late_JJ 1960s_MC2 before_CS the_AT Food_NN1 and_CC Drug_NN1 Administration_NN1 clamped_VVD down_RP and_CC labeled_VVD them_PPHO2 as_CSA controlled_VVN substances_NN2 that_CST required_VVD a_AT1 special_JJ prescription_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT mid-1990s_MC2 the_AT growing_JJ use_NN1 of_IO methylphenidate_NN1 for_IF treatment_NN1 of_IO ADHD_NP1 prompted_VVD researchers_NN2 to_TO deploy_VVI novel_JJ brain-imaging_JJ techniques_NN2 and_CC sophisticated_JJ neuropsychological_JJ tests_NN2 to_TO examine_VVI effects_NN2 of_IO the_AT drug_NN1 in_II healthy_JJ subjects_NN2 ,_, supplying_VVG a_AT1 baseline_NN1 for_IF comparison_NN1 with_IW patients_NN2 with_IW ADA_NP1 and_CC other_JJ neuropsychiatric_JJ disorders_NN2 ._. 
A_ZZ1 1997_MC paper_NN1 in_II Psychopharmacology_NP1 by_II Barbara_NP1 Sahakian_JJ ,_, Trevor_NP1 Robbins_NP1 and_CC their_APPGE colleagues_NN2 at_II the_AT University_NN1 of_IO Cambridge_NP1 showed_VVD that_CST methylphenidate_VV0 improved_JJ cognitive_JJ performance_NN1 on_II several_DA2 measures_NN2 (_( spatial_JJ working_JJ memory_NN1 and_CC planning_NN1 ,_, in_RR21 particular_RR22 )_) in_II a_AT1 group_NN1 of_IO rested_JJ ,_, healthy_JJ young_JJ males_NN2 but_CCB not_XX on_II others_NN2 ,_, including_II attention_NN1 and_CC verbal_JJ fluency_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA testing_NN1 progressed_VVD ,_, the_AT volunteers_NN2 seemed_VVD to_TO make_VVI more_DAR errors_NN2 in_II their_APPGE responses_NN2 ._. 
Perhaps_RR because_II21 of_II22 impulsivity_NN1 induced_VVN by_II effects_NN2 of_IO the_AT drug_NN1 ._. 
The_AT same_DA researchers_NN2 found_VVD little_RR cognitive_JJ benefit_NN1 in_II healthy_JJ elderly_JJ males_NN2 ._. 
And_CC in_II 2005_MC a_AT1 group_NN1 at_II the_AT University_NN1 of_IO Florida_NP1 Medical_JJ School_NN1 at_II Gainesville_NP1 could_VM not_XX turn_VVI up_RP any_DD cognitive_JJ boost_NN1 from_II the_AT drug_NN1 among_II 20_MC sleep-deprived_JJ medical_JJ students_NN2 ._. 
Another_DD1 impediment_NN1 to_TO methylphenidate_VVI ever_RR being_VBG placed_VVN alongside_II NoDoz_NP1 and_CC other_JJ caffeine_NN1 pills_NN2 is_VBZ its_APPGE potential_NN1 for_IF causing_VVG cardiac_JJ arrhythmias_NN2 and_CC for_IF abuse_NN1 as_II a_AT1 recreational_JJ drug_NN1 ._. 
Addiction_NN1 is_VBZ rare_JJ with_IW normal_JJ dosing_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB in_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 methylphenidate_NN1 users_NN2 routinely_RR became_VVD addictied_VVD after_II inhaling_VVG or_CC injecting_VVG the_AT drug_NN1 that_CST they_PPHS2 called_VVD "_" West_ND1 Coast_NN1 ._. "_" 
