1_MC1 ._. 
Introduction_NN1 Psychologists_NN2 have_VH0 usually_RR studied_VVN sex_NN1 differences_NN2 as_CSA qualities_NN2 inherent_JJ in_II the_AT individual_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 as_II a_AT1 social_JJ or_CC contextual_JJ issue_NN1 ._. 
Many_DA2 see_VV0 gender_NN1 differences_NN2 as_CSA related_VVN to_II biological_JJ sex_NN1 ,_, pre-determined_JJ or_CC a_AT1 part_NN1 of_IO our_APPGE genetic_JJ make-up_NN1 ._. 
Others_NN2 agree_VV0 that_CST there_EX are_VBR social_JJ forces_NN2 at_II work_NN1 to_TO influence_VVI people_NN in_II the_AT direction_NN1 of_IO gender-appropriate_JJ behavior_NN1 ,_, but_CCB still_RR see_VV0 these_DD2 forces_NN2 as_CSA creating_VVG stable_JJ structures_NN2 internal_JJ to_II the_AT individual_NN1 ._. 
The_AT goal_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 study_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO examine_VVI how_RRQ boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 use_VV0 discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 in_II conversation_NN1 ._. 
Discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 can_VM index_VVI the_AT conversational_JJ activity_NN1 context_NN1 in_II which_DDQ boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 are_VBR engaged_VVN ,_, and_CC allow_VV0 us_PPIO2 to_TO compare_VVI gendered_JJ speech_NN1 within_II that_DD1 context_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 provides_VVZ an_AT1 opportunity_NN1 to_TO consider_VVI the_AT role_NN1 of_IO context_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 internal_JJ forces_NN2 in_II gender_NN1 differences_NN2 observed_VVN in_II conversation_NN1 ._. 
Much_DA1 research_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN dedicated_VVN to_II the_AT differences_NN2 between_II men_NN2 and_CC women_NN2 's_GE styles_NN2 of_IO speech_NN1 ._. 
Male_NN1 and_CC female_JJ speech_NN1 patterns_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN portrayed_VVN as_CS21 if_CS22 men_NN2 and_CC women_NN2 speak_VV0 two_MC different_JJ languages_NN2 and_CC even_RR come_VV0 from_II two_MC different_JJ planets_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN argued_VVN that_CST the_AT difference_NN1 between_II men_NN2 and_CC women_NN2 's_GE speech_NN1 patterns_NN2 is_VBZ a_AT1 cultural_JJ difference_NN1 ._. 
Young_JJ children_NN2 segregate_VV0 into_II gender-separate_JJ play_NN1 groups_NN2 ,_, and_CC may_VM be_VBI given_VVN quite_RG different_JJ responsibilities_NN2 ._. 
Because_CS there_EX is_VBZ little_DA1 contact_NN1 between_II boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 after_II this_DD1 separation_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR socialized_VVN quite_RG differently_RR ,_, developing_VVG different_JJ values_NN2 and_CC norms_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 cultures_NN2 become_VV0 the_AT crucible_NN1 from_II which_DDQ emerge_VV0 differences_NN2 in_II conversational_JJ ,_, social_JJ and_CC intellectual_JJ style_NN1 ._. 
The_AT study_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 differences_NN2 dominates_VVZ much_DA1 research_NN1 on_II gender._NNU 2_MC ._. 
Cultural_JJ training_NN1 vs._II situational_JJ context_NN1 There_EX is_VBZ another_DD1 viewpoint_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, which_DDQ frames_VVZ gender_NN1 as_II a_AT1 social_JJ construction_NN1 and_CC argues_VVZ that_CST the_AT situations_NN2 in_II which_DDQ conversation_NN1 occurs_VVZ may_VM constrain_VVI speech_NN1 behavior_NN1 ,_, as_II31 opposed_II32 to_II33 seeing_VVG gender_NN1 differences_NN2 as_CSA dispositional_JJ ._. 
Gender_NN1 is_VBZ about_II group_NN1 identity_NN1 in_II a_AT1 given_JJ context_NN1 and_CC there_EX are_VBR times_NNT2 when_RRQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ relevant_JJ and_CC times_NNT2 when_RRQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX ._. 
When_CS gender_NN1 becomes_VVZ relevant_JJ ,_, then_RT boys_NN2 '_GE and_CC girls_NN2 '_GE speech_NN1 will_VM be_VBI different_JJ ._. 
At_II the_AT times_NNT2 when_RRQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX ,_, other_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO the_AT social_JJ situation_NN1 tend_VV0 to_TO dominate_VVI ,_, and_CC boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 will_VM be_VBI more_RGR similar_JJ in_II their_APPGE speech_NN1 ._. 
Thorne_NP1 also_RR suggests_VVZ that_CST the_AT separate_JJ worlds_NN2 of_IO boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 may_VM not_XX be_VBI so_RG separate_JJ after_II all_DB ._. 
Although_CS sex-segregation_NN1 in_II elementary_JJ school_NN1 children_NN2 is_VBZ pervasive_JJ ,_, there_EX are_VBR still_JJ settings_NN2 where_RRQ boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 are_VBR together_RL ,_, providing_VVG contexts_NN2 that_CST encourage_VV0 same-gender_JJ behavior_NN1 ._. 
The_AT social_JJ context_NN1 can_VM provide_VVI social_JJ spaces_NN2 for_IF the_AT performance_NN1 of_IO gender_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 in_II interactive_JJ song_NN1 games_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 song_NN1 games_NN2 create_VV0 a_AT1 shared_JJ structure_NN1 in_II which_DDQ gender_NN1 and_CC sexuality_NN1 are_VBR negotiated_VVN and_CC co-constructed_VVN by_II the_AT participants_NN2 ._. 
Thorne_NP1 observed_VVD that_CST children_NN2 often_RR interact_VV0 in_II contexts_NN2 where_RRQ gender_NN1 is_VBZ organized_VVN dichotomously_RR ,_, with_IW boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 defined_VVN as_CSA opposing_JJ sides_NN2 ._. 
In_II these_DD2 contexts_NN2 ,_, gender_NN1 becomes_VVZ highly_RR salient_JJ ._. 
In_II contexts_NN2 where_CS there_EX are_VBR cues_NN2 for_IF socialized_JJ sex-roles_NN2 ,_, children_NN2 will_VM also_RR be_VBI constrained_VVN into_II gender-appropriate_JJ play_NN1 scenarios_NN2 ._. 
Yet_RR there_EX are_VBR times_NNT2 when_RRQ gender_NN1 may_VM be_VBI low_JJ in_II salience_NN1 ,_, like_VV0 in_II a_AT1 sandbox_NN1 ,_, in_II cooperative_JJ activities_NN2 where_RRQ boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 work_VV0 together_RL ,_, or_CC even_CS21 when_CS22 they_PPHS2 run_VV0 in_II circles_NN2 and_CC scream_NN1 ._. 
At_II these_DD2 times_NNT2 ,_, boys_NN2 '_GE and_CC girls_NN2 '_GE behavior_NN1 is_VBZ much_RR more_RGR similar_JJ than_CSN different_JJ ._. 
For_IF these_DD2 reasons_NN2 ,_, we_PPIS2 must_VM take_VVI context_NN1 into_II consideration_NN1 when_CS interpreting_VVG girls_NN2 and_CC boys_NN2 '_GE conversational_JJ patterns_NN2 ._. 
Sheldon_NP1 found_VVD that_CST in_II disputes_NN2 ,_, girls_NN2 are_VBR much_RR more_RGR assertive_JJ than_CSN previously_RR thought_VVN ,_, although_CS they_PPHS2 masked_VVD their_APPGE assertiveness_NN1 through_II mitigation_NN1 ._. 
In_II her_APPGE study_NN1 of_IO preschool_JJ age_NN1 girls_NN2 ,_, she_PPHS1 found_VVD that_CST they_PPHS2 used_VVD "_" double-voiced_JJ discourse_NN1 ,_, "_" as_CSA a_AT1 way_NN1 to_TO be_VBI confrontational_JJ ,_, while_CS softening_VVG the_AT social_JJ risk_NN1 of_IO conflict_NN1 through_II using_VVG indirect_JJ speech_NN1 ._. 
Goodwin_NP1 observed_VVD that_CST within_II a_AT1 septic_JJ context_NN1 (_( jump_VV0 rope_NN1 )_) ,_, gender_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX as_RG important_JJ as_CSA was_VBDZ expertise_NN1 for_IF predicting_VVG who_PNQS would_VM use_VVI direct_JJ speech_NN1 and_CC tell_VVI others_NN2 what_DDQ to_TO do_VDI ._. 
In_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO directives_NN2 ,_, she_PPHS1 found_VVD that_CST both_RR boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 directly_RR told_VVN others_NN2 what_DDQ to_TO do_VDI if_CS they_PPHS2 were_VBDR more_RGR skilled_JJ in_II the_AT activity_NN1 at_II hand_NN1 ._. 
Aronsson_NN1 and_CC Thorell_NP1 also_RR found_VVN that_CST both_RR boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 used_VVD similar_JJ strategies_NN2 in_II threat-tell_VV0 sequences_NN2 even_CS21 though_CS22 they_PPHS2 demonstrated_VVD knowledge_NN1 of_IO expected_JJ gender_NN1 roles_NN2 in_II disputes_NN2 ._. 
Although_CS children_NN2 saw_VVD the_AT male_JJ figures_NN2 in_II family_NN1 disputes_NN2 as_CSA acting_VVG more_RGR directly_RR than_CSN female_JJ figures_NN2 ,_, children_NN2 of_IO both_DB2 genders_NN2 engaged_VVN in_II aggravation_NN1 and_CC mitigation_NN1 ._. 
Kyratzis_NN1 and_CC Guo_NP1 also_RR challenged_VVD the_AT assumption_NN1 of_IO the_AT universality_NN1 of_IO gender_NN1 differences_NN2 in_II speech_NN1 style_NN1 ._. 
In_II conflict_NN1 situations_NN2 ,_, they_PPHS2 found_VVD that_CST Mandarin-speaking_JJ Chinese_JJ girls_NN2 were_VBDR quite_RG assertive_JJ in_II an_AT1 argument_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT boys_NN2 quite_RG compliant_JJ ._. 
American_JJ boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 had_VHD opposite_JJ patterns_NN2 and_CC were_VBDR more_RGR extreme_JJ ._. 
Assertiveness_NN1 in_II girls_NN2 has_VHZ also_RR been_VBN observed_VVN among_II Latino_NP1 girls_NN2 in_II cooperative_JJ learning_NN1 contexts_NN2 and_CC in_II the_AT bilingual_JJ code-switching_JJ conversation_NN1 of_IO Swedish_JJ children_NN2 ,_, in_II which_DDQ both_RR boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 did_VDD not_XX hesitate_VVI to_TO engage_VVI as_CSA adversaries_NN2 ._. 
Thorne_NP1 presents_VVZ a_AT1 challenge_NN1 to_II researchers_NN2 in_II the_AT field_NN1 of_IO gender_NN1 by_II saying_VVG that_CST the_AT "_" why_RRQ "_" question_NN1 about_II gender_NN1 differences_NN2 is_VBZ less_RGR productive_JJ than_CSN the_AT "_" how_RRQ "_" question_NN1 ._. 
How_RRQ do_VD0 these_DD2 gender_NN1 differences_NN2 come_VV0 about_RP ?_? 
How_RRQ do_VD0 children_NN2 express_VVI common_JJ goals_NN2 when_CS there_EX is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 gender_NN1 difference_NN1 ,_, and_CC when_CS there_EX is_VBZ ?_? 3_MC ._. 
Discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 3.1_MC ._. 
Pragmatic_JJ form_NN1 and_CC social_JJ index_NN1 Discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 organize_VV0 a_AT1 conversation_NN1 and_CC index_VV0 social_JJ and_CC propositional_JJ moves_NN2 within_II the_AT spoken_JJ discourse_NN1 ._. 
Schiffrin_NN1 defines_VVZ discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 as_CSA "_" elements_NN2 that_CST signal_NN1 relations_NN2 between_II units_NN2 of_IO talk_NN1 by_II virtue_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE sequential_JJ relations_NN2 as_CSA initial_JJ or_CC terminal_JJ brackets_NN2 demarcating_VVG discourse_NN1 units_NN2 ._. "_" 
Discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 (_( DMs_NNU2 )_) organize_VV0 discourse_NN1 at_II multiple_JJ levels_NN2 and_CC index_NN1 relationships_NN2 among_II people_NN ,_, turns_VVZ ,_, topics_NN2 ,_, activities_NN2 ,_, ideas_NN2 ,_, and_CC more_RRR ._. 
The_AT meaning_NN1 they_PPHS2 convey_VV0 is_VBZ a_AT1 relational_JJ one_PN1 ,_, marking_VVG the_AT shifts_NN2 and_CC changes_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 dynamic_JJ exchange_NN1 ._. 
Discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 are_VBR not_XX like_II the_AT other_JJ words_NN2 in_II an_AT1 utterance_NN1 :_: they_PPHS2 are_VBR vocabulary_NN1 without_IW reference_NN1 and_CC do_VD0 not_XX have_VHI propositional_JJ meaning_NN1 ._. 
Instead_RR ,_, DMs_NNU2 signal_NN1 changes_NN2 that_CST happen_VV0 in_II the_AT flow_NN1 of_IO discourse_NN1 ;_; in_II that_DD1 way_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 have_VH0 pragmatic_JJ meaning_NN1 ,_, but_CCB do_VD0 not_XX derive_VVI their_APPGE meaning_NN1 from_II reference_NN1 ._. 
For_IF the_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 study_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 will_VM define_VVI DMsalong_VV0 the_AT lines_NN2 of_IO Schiffrin_NP1 and_CC use_VV0 the_AT following_JJ criteria_NN2 :_: 1_MC1 ._. 
A_AT1 discourse_NN1 marker_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX grammatically_RR obligatory_JJ ._. 
You_PPY can_VM remove_VVI the_AT form_NN1 from_II the_AT utterance_NN1 and_CC preserve_VV0 both_RR correct_JJ syntax_NN1 and_CC the_AT propositional_JJ content_NN1 ._. 
Example_NN1 :_: "_" I_PPIS1 ca_VM n't_XX have_VHI a_AT1 pet_NN1 'cuz_VV0 my_APPGE mom_NN1 is_VBZ 'lergic_JJ ._. "_" 
With_IW marker_NN1 removed_VVD :_: "_" I_PPIS1 ca_VM n't_XX have_VHI a_AT1 pet_NN1 ._. 
My_APPGE mom_NN1 is_VBZ 'lergic_JJ "_" 2_MC ._. 
A_AT1 discourse_NN1 marker_NN1 is_VBZ commonly_RR used_VVN at_II the_AT beginning_NN1 or_CC end_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 conversational_JJ turn_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS a_AT1 marker_NN1 may_VM occur_VVI in_II the_AT middle_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 turn_NN1 or_CC between_II clauses_NN2 ,_, the_AT form_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ used_VVN must_VM also_RR be_VBI possible_JJ as_II a_AT1 turn-initial_NN1 or_CC turn-final_JJ marker_NN1 ._. 
The_AT following_JJ example_NN1 includes_VVZ a_AT1 turn-initial_JJ use_NN1 of_IO because_CS :_: Example_NN1 :_: "_" I_PPIS1 do_VD0 n't_XX like_VVI tuna_NN "_" Response_NN1 :_: "_" Because_CS tuna_NN is_VBZ yucky._NNU "_" 3_MC ._. 
A_AT1 discourse_NN1 marker_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX add_VVI propositional_JJ meaning_NN1 to_II the_AT utterance_NN1 :_: a_AT1 form_NN1 must_VM not_XX gain_VVI meaning_VVG from_II reference_NN1 if_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ to_TO be_VBI defined_VVN as_II a_AT1 discourse_NN1 marker_NN1 ._. 
While_CS ideational_JJ markers_NN2 may_VM mark_VVI a_AT1 relationship_NN1 between_II propositions_NN2 ,_, discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 may_VM add_VVI pragmatic_JJ or_CC social_JJ meaning_NN1 to_II an_AT1 utterance_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT following_JJ example_NN1 well_RR adds_VVZ a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO politeness_NN2 but_CCB not_XX content_JJ :_: Example_NN1 :_: "_" Are_VBR you_PPY free_VV0 on_II Friday_NPD1 night_NNT1 ?_? "_" 
Response_NN1 with_IW marker_NN1 :_: "_" well_RR ,_, no_UH ,_, I_PPIS1 have_VH0 plans_NN2 "_" Response_NN1 without_IW marker_NN1 :_: "_" no_UH ,_, I_PPIS1 have_VH0 plans_NN2 "_" 3.2_MC ._. 
Functions_NN2 of_IO discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 DMs_NNU2 can_VM function_VVI at_II many_DA2 levels_NN2 of_IO discourse_NN1 ,_, and_CC sometimes_RT can_VM mark_VVI several_DA2 levels_NN2 simultaneously_RR ._. 
A_ZZ1 DM_NNU can_VM mark_VVI a_AT1 shift_NN1 in_II the_AT dynamics_NN of_IO the_AT interaction_NN1 ,_, of_IO the_AT function_NN1 of_IO the_AT conversation_NN1 ,_, of_IO the_AT phase_NN1 of_IO the_AT activity_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ being_VBG currently_RR engaged_VVN in_II ._. 
Schiffrin_NN1 discusses_VVZ five_MC different_JJ levels_NN2 at_II which_DDQ discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 function_VV0 :_: 1_MC1 ._. 
Exchange_NN1 :_: Indexing_NN1 shifts_VVZ at_II the_AT level_NN1 of_IO the_AT turn_NN1 ._. 
Discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 can_VM index_VVI shifts_NN2 at_II the_AT level_NN1 of_IO the_AT exchange_NN1 ._. 
At_II this_DD1 level_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 DM_NNU manages_VVZ the_AT exchange_NN1 of_IO conversational_JJ turns_NN2 ._. 
Any_DD move_VV0 to_TO gain_VVI the_AT floor_NN1 ,_, hold_VV0 the_AT floor_NN1 ,_, get_VV0 attention_NN1 ,_, or_CC otherwise_RR elicit_VV0 or_CC initiate_VV0 a_AT1 conversational_JJ move_NN1 would_VM be_VBI marking_VVG at_II the_AT exchange_NN1 level_NN1 ._. 
In_II (_( 1_MC1 )_) ,_, below_RL ,_, the_AT discourse_NN1 marker_NN1 occurs_VVZ at_II the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO the_AT turn_NN1 ,_, to_TO get_VVI attention_NN1 and_CC gain_VVI the_AT floor_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB markers_NN2 can_VM also_RR occur_VVI at_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 turn_NN1 in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 tag_NN1 question_NN1 ,_, to_TO surrender_VVI a_AT1 turn_NN1 and_CC confirm_VVI the_AT participation_NN1 of_IO the_AT addressee_NN1 ,_, as_CSA in_II (_( 2_MC )_) .4_MC ._. 
Participation_NN1 :_: Marking_NN1 shifts_VVZ in_II the_AT roles_NN2 of_IO participants._NNU (_( 1_MC1 )_) M_ZZ1 (_( 4_MC yrs_NNU2 ._. )_) :_: 
"_" Oh_UH ,_, I_PPIS1 have_VH0 peanut_NN1 butter_NN1 ..._... 
Look_VV0 ,_, I_PPIS1 have_VH0 peanut_NN1 butter_NN1 "_" (_( 2_MC )_) J_ZZ1 (_( 3_MC yrs_NNU2 ._. )_) :_: 
"_" We_PPIS2 can_VM be_VBI power_NN1 rangers_NN2 ,_, ok_RR ?_? "_" 2_MC ._. 
Action_NN1 :_: Marking_VVG moves_NN2 designed_VVN to_TO accomplish_VVI an_AT1 action_NN1 ._. 
Discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 can_VM also_RR mark_VVI moves_NN2 that_CST are_VBR meant_VVN to_TO accomplish_VVI some_DD kind_NN1 of_IO action_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 functions_NN2 are_VBR mainly_RR found_VVN to_TO mark_VVI control_NN1 acts_NN2 ,_, that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, speech_NN1 acts_VVZ that_CST are_VBR meant_VVN to_TO control_VVI or_CC influence_VVI another_DD1 's_VBZ behavior_NN1 ._. 
Discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 index_VV0 the_AT relation_NN1 between_II the_AT utterance_NN1 and_CC the_AT desired_JJ behavior_NN1 on_II41 the_II42 part_II43 of_II44 the_AT other_JJ person_NN1 ._. 
Examples_NN2 include_VV0 such_DA control_NN1 act_NN1 moves_VVZ as_CSA marking_VVG arguments_NN2 ,_, requests_NN2 or_CC bargaining_NN1 and_CC justifications_NN2 ,_, as_CSA in_II (_( 3_MC )_) ._. 
(_( 3_MC )_) D_ZZ1 (_( 4_MC yrs_NNU2 ._. )_) :_: 
"_" It_PPH1 's_VBZ mine_PPGE because_CS I_PPIS1 waited_VVD my_APPGE turn_NN1 "_" 3_MC ._. 
Ideation_NP1 :_: Organizing_NP1 and_CC marking_VVG relations_NN2 between_II ideas_NN2 ._. 
Discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 can_VM also_RR organize_VVI and_CC mark_VVI relations_NN2 between_II ideas_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 level_NN1 of_IO marking_VVG indexes_NN2 a_AT1 relation_NN1 between_II the_AT meaning_NN1 of_IO two_MC clauses_NN2 or_CC ideas_NN2 ,_, like_II marking_VVG relational_JJ cohesion_NN1 in_II a_AT1 narrative_NN1 ._. 
The_AT plane_NN1 of_IO ideation_NN1 is_VBZ fundamentally_RR referential_JJ ,_, involving_VVG features_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 conversational_JJ topics_NN2 ,_, naming_VVG ,_, deixis_NN1 ,_, and_CC propositions_NN2 ._. 
Ideation_NN1 refers_VVZ directly_RR to_II the_AT informational_JJ content_NN1 of_IO the_AT utterance_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT previous_JJ example_NN1 (_( 3_MC )_) ,_, because_CS is_VBZ not_XX acting_VVG as_II a_AT1 causal_JJ connective_NN1 but_CCB marks_VVZ a_AT1 justification_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 claim_NN1 (_( action_NN1 )_) ._. 
In_II (_( 4_MC )_) ,_, because_CS is_VBZ marking_VVG a_AT1 causal_JJ relationship_NN1 between_II two_MC propositions_NN2 (_( ideation_NN1 )_) ._. 
(_( 4_MC )_) D_ZZ1 (_( 4_MC yrs_NNU2 ._. )_) :_: 
"_" I_PPIS1 ca_VM n't_XX have_VHI a_AT1 pet_NN1 'cuz_VV0 my_APPGE mom_NN1 is_VBZ 'lergic_JJ "_" 4_MC ._. 
Participation_NN1 :_: Marking_NN1 shifts_VVZ in_II the_AT roles_NN2 of_IO participants_NN2 ._. 
At_II this_DD1 level_NN1 ,_, discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 index_VV0 a_AT1 shift_NN1 in_II the_AT roles_NN2 of_IO the_AT participants_NN2 in_II the_AT talk_NN1 ,_, or_CC introduce_VV0 upcoming_JJ changes_NN2 in_II episode_NN1 or_CC phase_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 primarily_RR occurs_VVZ as_II a_AT1 boundary-marking_JJ function_NN1 ,_, especially_RR between_II phases_NN2 or_CC kinds_NN2 of_IO activities_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 can_VM also_RR mark_VVI a_AT1 shift_NN1 in_II the_AT social_JJ roles_NN2 of_IO the_AT speakers_NN2 ,_, or_CC indicate_VV0 an_AT1 adversarial_JJ or_CC affiliative_JJ position_NN1 or_CC a_AT1 register_NN1 shift_VV0 in_II role-play_NN1 ._. 
In_II (_( 5_MC )_) ,_, a_AT1 child_NN1 is_VBZ using_VVG the_AT marker_NN1 but_CCB (_( along_II21 with_II22 a_AT1 shift_NN1 in_II voice_NN1 )_) to_TO mark_VVI a_AT1 shift_NN1 in_II role-play_JJ register_NN1 ,_, doing_VDG her_APPGE best_JJT Elvis_NP1 impersonation_NN1 :_: 5_MC ._. 
Information_NN1 Management_NN1 :_: Checking_VVG on_II the_AT flow_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD DMs_NNU2 described_VVN by_II Schiffrin_NP1 mark_NN1 information_NN1 state_NN1 ._. 
At_II this_DD1 level_NN1 ,_, the_AT marker_NN1 indexes_NN2 the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT ideas_NN2 of_IO the_AT speaker_NN1 and_CC the_AT addressee_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT speaker_NN1 's_GE way_NN1 of_IO checking_VVG in_RP with_IW the_AT addressee_NN1 to_TO confirm_VVI that_CST the_AT information_NN1 contained_VVN in_II a_AT1 statement_NN1 is_VBZ being_VBG understood_VVN ._. 
It_PPH1 also_RR alerts_NN2 the_AT addressee_NN1 to_II the_AT expectations_NN2 of_IO old_JJ and_CC new_JJ information_NN1 on_II41 the_II42 part_II43 of_II44 the_AT speaker._NNU 8_MC ._. 
Conclusion_NN1 The_AT gender_NN1 differences_NN2 in_II children_NN2 's_GE conversations_NN2 may_VM be_VBI more_RRR about_II activity_NN1 than_CSN a_AT1 difference_NN1 in_II actual_JJ conversational_JJ goals_NN2 ._. 
Both_RR boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 bargain_VV0 ,_, and_CC when_CS they_PPHS2 do_VD0 ,_, they_PPHS2 use_VV0 strikingly_RR similar_JJ action_NN1 level_NN1 discourse-marking_NN1 functions_NN2 ._. 
When_CS they_PPHS2 tell_VV0 stories_NN2 ,_, both_RR boys_NN2 and_CC girls_NN2 mark_VV0 ideation_NN1 ._. 
In_II using_VVG discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 to_TO index_VVI the_AT conversational_JJ goals_NN2 of_IO these_DD2 children_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 appears_VVZ that_CST for_IF this_DD1 form_NN1 ,_, activity_NN1 accounts_VVZ for_IF gender_NN1 differences_NN2 to_II a_AT1 great_JJ degree_NN1 ._. 
Discourse_NN1 markers_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, are_VBR limited_VVN in_II the_AT scope_NN1 to_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 can_VM tell_VVI us_PPIO2 about_II the_AT interaction_NN1 itself_PPX1 ._. 
This_DD1 study_NN1 suggests_VVZ that_DD1 gender_NN1 differences_NN2 may_VM actually_RR reflect_VVI the_AT contextual_JJ demands_NN2 placed_VVN on_II the_AT child_NN1 ,_, and_CC may_VM be_VBI more_RGR descriptive_JJ of_IO situated_JJ behavior_NN1 ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 indexing_VVG essential_JJ gender_NN1 differences_NN2 ._. 
The_AT study_NN1 of_IO more_RGR complex_JJ conversational_JJ interactions_NN2 may_VM give_VVI a_AT1 better_JJR perspective_NN1 into_II the_AT relationship_NN1 of_IO gender_NN1 and_CC language_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, the_AT observed_JJ gender_NN1 difference_NN1 in_II activity_NN1 participation_NN1 presents_VVZ additional_JJ questions_NN2 ._. 
Although_CS the_AT "_" why_RRQ "_" questions_NN2 may_VM seem_VVI the_AT most_RGT compelling_JJ ,_, Thorne_NP1 's_GE challenge_NN1 to_TO ask_VVI the_AT "_" how_RRQ "_" questions_NN2 may_VM prove_VVI to_TO be_VBI more_RGR fruitful_JJ ._. 
How_RRQ do_VD0 children_NN2 select_VVI their_APPGE conversational_JJ activity_NN1 ?_? 
The_AT answer_NN1 to_II that_DD1 question_NN1 may_VM give_VVI us_PPIO2 not_XX only_RR a_AT1 better_JJR understanding_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ role_NN1 gender_NN1 plays_VVZ in_II creating_VVG social_JJ contexts_NN2 ,_, but_CCB also_RR an_AT1 understanding_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ role_NN1 social_JJ context_NN1 plays_VVZ in_II the_AT construction_NN1 of_IO gendered_JJ behavior_NN1 ._. 
