Putting_VVG Evolution_NN1 to_II Use_NN1 in_II the_AT Everyday_JJ World_NN1 Understanding_NN1 of_IO evolution_NN1 is_VBZ fostering_VVG powerful_JJ technologies_NN2 for_IF health_NN1 care_NN1 ,_, law_NN1 enforcement_NN1 ,_, ecology_NN1 ,_, and_CC all_DB manner_NN1 of_IO optimization_NN1 and_CC design_NN1 problems_NN2 Charles_NP1 Darwin_NP1 surely_RR had_VHD no_AT clue_NN1 of_IO the_AT technological_JJ advances_NN2 that_CST his_APPGE studies_NN2 of_IO beetles_NN2 and_CC birds_NN2 would_VM unleash_VVI ._. 
Our_APPGE progress_NN1 in_II comprehending_VVG the_AT history_NN1 and_CC mechanisms_NN2 of_IO evolution_NN1 has_VHZ led_VVN to_II powerful_JJ applications_NN2 that_CST shape_VV0 a_AT1 wide_JJ variety_NN1 of_IO fields_NN2 today_RT ._. 
For_REX21 instance_REX22 --_NN1 as_II the_AT CSI_JJ franchise_NN1 of_IO television_NN1 shows_NN2 has_VHZ popularized_VVN --_JJ law-enforcement_JJ agencies_NN2 now_RT commonly_RR use_VV0 evolutionary_JJ analyses_NN2 in_II their_APPGE investigations_NN2 ._. 
Knowledge_NN1 of_IO how_RGQ different_JJ genes_NN2 evolve_VV0 determines_VVZ the_AT kind_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 they_PPHS2 can_VM extract_VVI from_II DNA_NN1 evidence_NN1 ._. 
In_II health_NN1 care_NN1 ,_, phylogenetic_JJ analysis_NN1 (_( studies_NN2 of_IO DNA_NN1 sequences_NN2 to_TO infer_VVI their_APPGE evolutionary_JJ relatedness_NN1 ,_, or_CC genealogy_NN1 )_) of_IO a_AT1 pathogen_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 bird_NN1 flu_NN1 or_CC West_ND1 Nile_NP1 virus_NN1 can_VM lead_VVI to_II vaccines_NN2 and_CC to_II guidelines_NN2 for_IF minimizing_VVG the_AT disease_NN1 's_GE transmission_NN1 to_II and_CC among_II people_NN ._. 
A_AT1 laboratory_NN1 process_NN1 called_VVN directed_JJ evolution_NN1 that_CST rapidly_RR evolves_VVZ proteins_NN2 can_VM improve_VVI vaccines_NN2 and_CC other_JJ useful_JJ proteins_NN2 ._. 
Among_II other_JJ examples_NN2 ,_, computer_NN1 scientists_NN2 have_VH0 adapted_VVN the_AT concepts_NN2 and_CC mechanisms_NN2 of_IO evolution_NN1 to_TO create_VVI a_AT1 general_JJ system_NN1 known_VVN as_II genetic_JJ programming_NN1 that_CST can_VM solve_VVI complex_JJ optimization_NN1 and_CC design_NN1 problems_NN2 ._. 
And_CC a_AT1 recently_RR developed_JJ approach_NN1 known_VVN as_II metagenomics_NN1 has_VHZ revolutionized_VVN scientists_NN2 '_GE ability_NN1 to_TO survey_VVI the_AT kinds_NN2 of_IO microbes_NN2 living_VVG in_II a_AT1 region_NN1 ,_, bringing_VVG about_RP the_AT most_RGT dramatic_JJ change_NN1 in_II our_APPGE understanding_NN1 of_IO microbial_JJ diversity_NN1 since_CS the_AT advent_NN1 of_IO microscopes_NN2 ._. 
Beyond_II Reasonable_JJ Doubt_NN1 Evolutionary_JJ analyses_NN2 and_CC criminal_JJ investigations_NN2 hold_VV0 the_AT same_DA goal_NN1 of_IO revealing_VVG historical_JJ events_NN2 ._. 
Their_APPGE fruitful_JJ combination_NN1 awaited_VVD only_RR the_AT maturing_JJ of_IO DNA-sequencing_JJ technology_NN1 to_TO provide_VVI large_JJ data_NN sets_NN2 ,_, robust_JJ quantitative_JJ methods_NN2 ,_, and_CC enlightened_JJ integration_NN1 of_IO science_NN1 and_CC the_AT legal_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA with_IW many_DA2 applications_NN2 of_IO evolution_NN1 ,_, the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO molecular_JJ clocks_NN2 plays_VVZ a_AT1 vital_JJ role_NN1 ._. 
Changes_NN2 in_II many_DA2 DNA_NN1 sequences_NN2 occur_VV0 at_II roughly_RR predictable_JJ rates_NN2 over_II time_NNT1 ,_, forming_VVG the_AT basis_NN1 for_IF molecular_JJ clocks_NN2 ._. 
The_AT clocks_NN2 for_IF two_MC regions_NN2 of_IO DNA_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, can_VM run_VVI at_II markedly_RR different_JJ rates_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT early_JJ 1980s_MC2 geneticists_NN2 discovered_VVD regions_NN2 of_IO human_JJ DNA_NN1 that_CST evolve_VV0 very_RG rapidly_RR ,_, and_CC scientists_NN2 soon_RR pressed_VVD these_DD2 fast-evolving_JJ regions_NN2 into_II service_NN1 as_CSA genetic_JJ markers_NN2 --_JJ unique_JJ identifiers_NN2 of_IO individuals_NN2 ,_, like_II fingerprints_NN2 but_CCB with_IW greater_JJR detail_NN1 --_NN1 in_II criminal_JJ cases_NN2 and_CC in_II paternity_NN1 testing_NN1 ._. 
Forensic_JJ investigators_NN2 assess_VV0 specific_JJ genetic_JJ markers_NN2 as_CSA indicators_NN2 of_IO links_NN2 between_II suspects_NN2 and_CC crime_NN1 scene_NN1 evidence_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 a_AT1 single_JJ human_JJ hair_NN1 ,_, lip_NN1 cells_NN2 left_VVN on_II a_AT1 beer_NN1 can_VM ,_, saliva_NN1 on_II envelope_NN1 flaps_NN2 and_CC cigarette_NN1 butts_NN2 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 semen_NN1 ,_, blood_NN1 ,_, urine_NN1 and_CC feces_NN2 ._. 
The_AT most_RGT straightforward_JJ use_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO demonstrate_VVI a_AT1 suspect_NN1 's_GE innocence_NN1 by_II the_AT nonmatching_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE or_CC her_APPGE markers_NN2 compared_VVN with_IW those_DD2 of_IO crime_NN1 scene_NN1 evidence_NN1 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, the_AT Innocence_NN1 Project_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 public_JJ policy_NN1 organization_NN1 promoting_VVG and_CC tracking_VVG the_AT use_NN1 of_IO genetic_JJ markers_NN2 to_TO overturn_VVI wrongful_JJ convictions_NN2 ,_, reports_VVZ that_CST since_II 1989_MC ,_, nonmatching_VVG of_IO genetic_JJ markers_NN2 has_VHZ exonerated_VVN more_DAR than_CSN 220_MC people_NN ,_, many_DA2 of_IO them_PPHO2 convicted_VVN for_IF rape_NN1 crimes_NN2 and_CC some_DD of_IO them_PPHO2 on_II death_NN1 row_NN1 ._. 
The_AT standing_NN1 of_IO evolutionary_JJ science_NN1 within_II the_AT U.S._NP1 court_NN1 system_NN1 has_VHZ completely_RR reversed_VVN since_CS its_APPGE portrayal_NN1 as_II an_AT1 insidious_JJ scourge_NN1 in_II the_AT 1925_MC trial_NN1 of_IO Tennessee_NP1 high_JJ school_NN1 teacher_NN1 John_NP1 T._NP1 Scopes_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1998_MC criminal_JJ case_NN1 of_IO the_AT State_NN1 of_IO Louisiana_NP1 v._II Richard_NP1 J._NP1 Schmidt_NP1 ,_, the_AT judge_NN1 set_NN1 precedent_NN1 in_II ruling_NN1 that_CST phylogenetic_JJ analyses_NN2 met_VVD judicial_JJ standards_NN2 because_CS they_PPHS2 were_VBDR subject_II21 to_II22 empirical_JJ testing_NN1 ,_, published_VVN in_II peer-reviewed_JJ sources_NN2 and_CC accepted_VVN within_II the_AT scientific_JJ community_NN1 --_NN1 some_DD of_IO the_AT criteria_NN2 commonly_RR known_VVN as_II the_AT Daubert_NP1 standard_NN1 for_IF scientific_JJ evidence_NN1 ,_, after_CS the_AT name_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 plaintiff_NN1 in_II an_AT1 earlier_JJR precedent-setting_JJ case_NN1 ._. 
I_PPIS1 was_VBDZ fortunate_JJ to_TO be_VBI invited_VVN to_TO participate_VVI in_II Louisiana_NP1 v._II Schmidt_NP1 as_II a_AT1 scientist_NN1 and_CC expert_NN1 witness_NN1 by_II Michael_NP1 L._NP1 Metzker_NN1 of_IO the_AT Baylor_NN1 College_NN1 of_IO Medicine_NN1 and_CC David_NP1 M._NN1 Hillis_NP1 of_IO the_AT University_NN1 of_IO Texas_NP1 at_II Austin_NP1 ._. 
The_AT three_MC of_IO us_PPIO2 worked_VVD together_RL on_II the_AT molecular_JJ analyses_NN2 ._. 
The_AT uncontested_JJ facts_NN2 in_II the_AT case_NN1 are_VBR that_CST a_AT1 gastroenterologist_NN1 broke_VVD into_II the_AT home_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE former_DA office_NN1 nurse_NN1 and_CC mistress_NN1 and_CC gave_VVD her_PPHO1 an_AT1 injection_NN1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 claimed_VVD it_PPH1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 vitamin_NN1 B_ZZ1 shot_NN1 ._. 
She_PPHS1 claimed_VVD it_PPH1 was_VBDZ HIV_NP1 ._. 
She_PPHS1 had_VHD begun_VVN feeling_VVG ill_JJ several_DA2 months_NNT2 after_II the_AT injection_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 blood_NN1 test_NN1 revealed_VVD that_CST she_PPHS1 had_VHD become_VVN infected_VVN with_IW HIV_NP1 ,_, at_II which_DDQ point_VV0 she_PPHS1 went_VVD to_II the_AT district_NN1 attorney_NN1 's_GE office_NN1 to_TO file_VVI charges_NN2 ._. 
The_AT DA_NN1 's_GE detectives_NN2 quickly_RR obtained_VVN a_AT1 search_NN1 warrant_NN1 for_IF the_AT physician_NN1 's_GE office_NN1 ,_, where_CS they_PPHS2 seized_VVD his_APPGE record_NN1 books_NN2 and_CC a_AT1 vial_NN1 of_IO blood_NN1 from_II a_AT1 refrigerator_NN1 ._. 
The_AT physician_NN1 said_VVD that_CST the_AT blood_NN1 sample_NN1 ,_, drawn_VVN from_II one_MC1 of_IO his_APPGE HIV-positive_JJ patients_NN2 ,_, was_VBDZ for_IF his_APPGE own_DA research_NN1 ._. 
Evolutionary_JJ Medicine_NN1 Another_DD1 way_NN1 that_CST evolution_NN1 influences_VVZ our_APPGE health_NN1 is_VBZ through_II what_DDQ might_VM be_VBI called_VVN "_" unintelligent_JJ design_NN1 features_NN2 "_" of_IO our_APPGE bodies_NN2 --_JJ legacies_NN2 of_IO our_APPGE evolutionary_JJ past_NN1 &lsqb;_( see_VV0 "_" This_DD1 Old_JJ Body_NN1 ,_, "_" by_II Neil_NP1 H._NP1 Shubin_NP1 &rsqb;_) ._. 
For_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, humans_NN2 have_VH0 a_AT1 higher_JJR incidence_NN1 of_IO birthing_VVG problems_NN2 as_CSA compared_VVN with_IW other_JJ primates_NN2 because_CS female_JJ pelvis_NN1 size_NN1 in_II humans_NN2 has_VHZ not_XX kept_VVN pace_NN1 with_IW selection_NN1 for_IF larger_JJR infant_NN1 brain_NN1 size_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD traits_NN2 that_CST may_VM seem_VVI unintelligently_RR designed_VVN ,_, however_RR ,_, can_VM actually_RR be_VBI useful_JJ ._. 
Examples_NN2 include_VV0 fever_NN1 ,_, diarrhea_NN1 and_CC vomiting_VVG ,_, which_DDQ aid_VV0 in_II purging_VVG microbial_JJ infections_NN2 ._. 
Applying_VVG an_AT1 evolutionary_JJ perspective_NN1 in_II understanding_VVG our_APPGE susceptibilities_NN2 and_CC promoting_VVG health_NN1 is_VBZ known_VVN as_II evolutionary_JJ or_CC Darwinian_JJ medicine_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 vital_JJ step_NN1 in_II this_DD1 new_JJ endeavor_NN1 is_VBZ integration_NN1 of_IO basic_JJ evolutionary_JJ science_NN1 into_II the_AT curricula_NN2 for_IF medical_JJ and_CC public_JJ health_NN1 students_NN2 ._. 
The_AT matching_NN1 of_IO human_JJ genotypes_NN2 with_IW particular_JJ diseases_NN2 has_VHZ given_VVN rise_NN1 to_II the_AT possibility_NN1 of_IO personalized_JJ medicine_NN1 ,_, in_II which_DDQ physicians_NN2 can_VM specify_VVI medications_NN2 and_CC dosages_NN2 for_IF individuals_NN2 based_VVN on_II particular_JJ genetic_JJ traits_NN2 ._. 
An_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 nascent_JJ approach_NN1 involves_VVZ the_AT drug_NN1 Herceptin_NP1 (_( trastuzumab_NN1 )_) ,_, which_DDQ can_VM reduce_VVI early-stage_JJ breast_NN1 cancers_NN2 in_II roughly_RR 25_MC percent_NNU of_IO cases_NN2 but_CCB occasionally_RR causes_VVZ heart_NN1 problems_NN2 ._. 
Doctors_NN2 can_VM use_VVI information_NN1 about_II an_AT1 individual_NN1 's_GE genotype_NN1 to_TO identify_VVI the_AT likelihood_NN1 of_IO positive_JJ response_NN1 to_II Herceptin_NP1 and_CC whether_CSW the_AT low_JJ probability_NN1 of_IO heart_NN1 problems_NN2 is_VBZ a_AT1 worthwhile_JJ risk_NN1 In_RR21 Vitro_RR22 and_CC In_II Silico_NP1 Evolution_NN1 acting_VVG over_RP billions_NNO2 of_IO years_NNT2 has_VHZ proved_VVN itself_PPX1 to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 versatile_JJ ,_, if_CS sometimes_RT quirky_JJ ,_, designer_NN1 ._. 
Researchers_NN2 are_VBR now_RT borrowing_VVG from_II evolution_NN1 's_GE drawing_NN1 board_NN1 ,_, using_VVG directed_JJ evolution_NN1 to_TO enhance_VVI useful_JJ functions_NN2 of_IO proteins_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 molecular_JJ biologists_NN2 intentionally_RR mutate_VV0 genes_NN2 ,_, produce_VV0 the_AT proteins_NN2 the_AT genes_NN2 encode_VV0 ,_, measure_VV0 the_AT proteins_NN2 '_GE functional_JJ performance_NN1 ,_, and_CC then_RT select_VV0 sets_NN2 of_IO top_JJ performers_NN2 for_IF subsequent_JJ bouts_NN2 of_IO mutation_NN1 and_CC testing_NN1 ._. 
Repeating_VVG this_DD1 cycle_NN1 millions_NNO2 of_IO times_NNT2 often_RR yields_VVZ impressive_JJ results_NN2 ._. 
Understanding_NN1 of_IO evolutionary_JJ history_NN1 and_CC mechanisms_NN2 improves_VVZ directed_JJ evolution_NN1 in_II several_DA2 ways_NN2 ._. 
First_MD ,_, discovering_VVG the_AT phylogenetic_JJ relationships_NN2 of_IO genes_NN2 is_VBZ an_AT1 important_JJ step_NN1 in_II determining_VVG their_APPGE functions_NN2 and_CC ,_, therefore_RR ,_, in_II selecting_VVG genes_NN2 as_CSA targets_NN2 for_IF directed_JJ evolution_NN1 ._. 
The_AT relatedness_NN1 of_IO genes_NN2 is_VBZ our_APPGE best_JJT proxy_NN1 for_IF estimating_VVG a_AT1 gene_NN1 's_GE function_NN1 prior_II21 to_II22 experiments_NN2 ._. 
If_CS we_PPIS2 have_VH0 experimentally_RR determined_VVN the_AT functions_NN2 for_IF a_AT1 gene_NN1 in_II mice_NN2 ,_, say_VV0 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ reasonable_JJ to_TO hypothesize_VVI that_CST the_AT most_RGT closely_RR related_JJ gene_NN1 in_II humans_NN2 will_VM have_VHI similar_JJ functions_NN2 ._. 
Second_MD ,_, knowledge_NN1 of_IO how_RGQ particular_JJ genes_NN2 evolve_VV0 --_JJ understanding_NN1 of_IO the_AT mechanisms_NN2 of_IO mutation_NN1 and_CC how_RGQ natural_JJ selection_NN1 operates_VVZ on_II them_PPHO2 --_NN1 informs_VVZ the_AT choice_NN1 of_IO mutations_NN2 to_TO impose_VVI in_II directed_JJ evolution_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 protein_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 chain_NN1 of_IO amino_NN1 acids_NN2 whose_DDQGE sequence_NN1 ultimately_RR determines_VVZ the_AT protein_NN1 's_GE function_NN1 ._. 
Directed_JJ evolutionists_NN2 may_VM choose_VVI to_TO alter_VVI single_JJ amino_NN1 acids_NN2 at_RR21 random_RR22 locations_NN2 anywhere_RL within_II the_AT sequence_NN1 or_CC only_RR in_II certain_JJ regions_NN2 or_CC even_RR at_II specific_JJ sequence_NN1 positions_NN2 known_VVN to_TO be_VBI functionally_RR important_JJ ._. 
Protein-coding_JJ genes_NN2 are_VBR structured_VVN in_II segments_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ we_PPIS2 can_VM shuffle_VVI to_TO try_VVI to_TO create_VVI arrangements_NN2 with_IW novel_JJ capabilities_NN2 ._. 
We_PPIS2 can_VM also_RR mix_VVI the_AT structural_JJ segments_NN2 of_IO related_JJ genes_NN2 from_II within_II a_AT1 gene_NN1 family_NN1 (_( phylogenetically_RR identified_VVN )_) or_CC from_II sister_NN1 species_NN to_TO construct_VVI so-called_JJ chimeric_JJ proteins_NN2 ._. 
Recombination_NN1 and_CC shuffling_NN1 of_IO gene_NN1 segments_NN2 has_VHZ produced_VVN rapid_JJ evolution_NN1 of_IO proteins_NN2 in_II nature_NN1 ,_, and_CC mimicking_VVG this_DD1 approach_NN1 has_VHZ proved_VVN to_TO be_VBI powerful_JJ in_II the_AT lab_NN1 ._. 
Researchers_NN2 have_VH0 further_RRR accelerated_VVN evolutionary_JJ change_NN1 by_II shuffling_NN1 whole_NN1 genomes_NN2 among_II populations_NN2 of_IO select_JJ microbes_NN2 ._. 
Metagenomics_NN2 The_AT DNA_NN1 from_II one_MC1 organism_NN1 makes_VVZ up_RP one_MC1 genome_NN1 ._. 
Collect_VV0 the_AT DNA_NN1 from_II an_AT1 entire_JJ community_NN1 of_IO microbes_NN2 of_IO various_JJ species_NN in_II some_DD location_NN1 ,_, and_CC you_PPY have_VH0 a_AT1 metagenome_NN1 ._. 
Biologists_NN2 can_VM now_RT isolate_VVI DNA_NN1 fragments_NN2 from_II such_DA a_AT1 community_NN1 ,_, determine_VV0 the_AT fragments_NN2 '_GE sequences_NN2 and_CC reassemble_VV0 them_PPHO2 into_II contiguous_JJ sequences_NN2 --_NN1 all_RR without_IW first_MD requiring_VVG the_AT difficult_JJ and_CC labor-intensive_JJ steps_NN2 involved_JJ in_II growing_VVG the_AT microbes_NN2 in_II the_AT lab_NN1 ._. 
Metagenomic_JJ analysis_NN1 of_IO microbes_NN2 in_II the_AT human_JJ intestinal_JJ tract_NN1 has_VHZ revealed_VVN more_DAR than_CSN 100_MC times_NNT2 as_RG many_DA2 different_JJ genes_NN2 as_CSA are_VBR found_VVN in_II our_APPGE own_DA genomes_NN2 (_( which_DDQ contain_VV0 about_RG 25,000_MC protein-coding_JJ genes_NN2 )_) and_CC about_RG 300_MC previously_RR unknown_JJ and_CC ,_, so_RG far_RR ,_, unculturable_JJ microbial_JJ life-forms_NN2 ._. 
The_AT known_JJ microbes_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE genes_NN2 play_VV0 important_JJ roles_NN2 in_II development_NN1 of_IO our_APPGE immune_JJ systems_NN2 ,_, in_II the_AT production_NN1 of_IO fatty_JJ acids_NN2 (_( which_DDQ power_VV0 healthy_JJ intestinal_JJ cell_NN1 growth_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC in_II detoxification_NN1 of_IO ingested_JJ substances_NN2 that_CST could_VM otherwise_RR lead_VVI to_II cancerous_JJ cell_NN1 growth_NN1 or_CC alter_VV0 our_APPGE ability_NN1 to_TO metabolize_VVI medicines_NN2 ._. 
Metagenomic_JJ analyses_NN2 suggest_VV0 that_CST changes_NN2 in_II the_AT occurrence_NN1 ,_, abundance_NN1 and_CC interactions_NN2 of_IO both_DB2 known_VVN and_CC unknown_JJ microbes_NN2 play_VV0 a_AT1 role_NN1 in_II human_JJ diseases_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 inflammatory_JJ bowel_NN1 disease_NN1 or_CC in_II conditions_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 obesity_NN1 ._. 
Similar_JJ metagenomic_JJ analyses_NN2 of_IO the_AT reproductive_JJ tract_NN1 in_II females_NN2 have_VH0 shown_VVN that_CST bacterial_JJ vaginosis_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 disease_NN1 associated_VVN with_IW premature_JJ labor_NN1 and_CC delivery_NN1 ,_, pelvic_JJ inflammatory_JJ disease_NN1 and_CC the_AT acquisition_NN1 of_IO sexually_RR transmitted_JJ pathogens_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 HIV_NP1 ,_, is_VBZ accompanied_VVN by_II dramatic_JJ changes_NN2 in_II the_AT species_NN composition_NN1 of_IO vaginal_JJ bacteria_NN2 communities_NN2 ._. 
Researchers_NN2 have_VH0 found_VVN many_DA2 newly_RR discovered_VVD bacterial_JJ groups_NN2 in_II both_DB2 healthy_JJ and_CC unhealthy_JJ vaginal_JJ ecosystems_NN2 ._. 
Improved_JJ treatment_NN1 of_IO bacterial_JJ vaginosis_NN1 requires_VVZ better_JJR understanding_NN1 of_IO how_RRQ these_DD2 changes_NN2 in_II vaginal_JJ ecosystems_NN2 occur_VV0 and_CC how_RRQ they_PPHS2 affect_VV0 ecosystem_NN1 function_NN1 and_CC disease_NN1 progression_NN1 ._. 
Turning_VVG to_II external_JJ ecosystems_NN2 and_CC sustainability_NN1 ,_, metagenomic_JJ analyses_NN2 of_IO water_NN1 samples_NN2 from_II the_AT Pacific_NP1 Ocean_NNL1 and_CC from_II the_AT Sargasso_NP1 Sea_NNL1 in_II the_AT North_ND1 Atlantic_NP1 have_VH0 similarly_RR indicated_VVN that_CST a_AT1 vast_JJ amount_NN1 of_IO oceanic_JJ biological_JJ diversity_NN1 ,_, including_II many_DA2 viruses_NN2 ,_, remains_VVZ to_TO be_VBI discovered_VVN and_CC understood_VVN ._. 
Scientists_NN2 know_VV0 relatively_RR little_RR about_II the_AT metabolic_JJ abilities_NN2 and_CC ecological_JJ functions_NN2 of_IO these_DD2 diverse_JJ microbial_JJ lineages_NN2 and_CC have_VH0 numerous_JJ projects_NN2 under_RR21 way_RR22 ._. 
We_PPIS2 need_VV0 to_TO learn_VVI about_II them_PPHO2 because_CS microbial_JJ communities_NN2 are_VBR largely_RR responsible_JJ for_IF supporting_JJ life_NN1 on_II earth_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 conduct_VV0 most_DAT of_IO the_AT world_NN1 's_GE photosynthesis_NN1 ,_, and_CC they_PPHS2 make_VV0 the_AT necessary_JJ elements_NN2 of_IO carbon_NN1 ,_, nitrogen_NN1 ,_, oxygen_NN1 and_CC sulfur_NN1 accessible_JJ to_II other_JJ life-forms_NN2 ,_, including_II people_NN ._. 
Using_VVG the_AT evolution-based_JJ analyses_NN2 of_IO meta-genomics_NN2 to_TO learn_VVI the_AT composition_NN1 of_IO communities_NN2 in_II a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO circumstances_NN2 is_VBZ only_RR the_AT first_MD step_NN1 in_II learning_VVG what_DDQ the_AT community_NN1 members_NN2 do_VD0 ,_, how_RRQ they_PPHS2 interact_VV0 ,_, and_CC how_RRQ they_PPHS2 are_VBR changed_VVN and_CC sustained_VVN over_II time_NNT1 ._. 
Are_VBR diverse_JJ microbial_JJ communities_NN2 more_RGR resilient_JJ to_II environmental_JJ change_NN1 than_CSN less_RGR diverse_JJ ones_NN2 ?_? 
Are_VBR some_DD particular_JJ groups_NN2 of_IO species_NN of_IO great_JJ importance_NN1 in_II maintaining_VVG an_AT1 ecosystem_NN1 ?_? 
What_DDQ drives_VVZ formation_NN1 and_CC turnover_NN1 in_II the_AT composition_NN1 of_IO microbial_JJ communities_NN2 ?_? 
The_AT concepts_NN2 and_CC methods_NN2 needed_VVN for_IF this_DD1 next_MD level_NN1 of_IO understanding_NN1 are_VBR largely_RR within_II the_AT realm_NN1 of_IO evolutionary_JJ ecology_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ entails_VVZ study_NN1 of_IO all_DB interactions_NN2 within_RL and_CC among_II species_NN and_CC populations_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE environments_NN2 ._. 
We_PPIS2 have_VH0 yet_RR to_TO see_VVI applications_NN2 arising_VVG from_II microbial_JJ metagenomics_NN2 and_CC evolutionary_JJ ecology_NN1 ,_, but_CCB possibilities_NN2 abound_VV0 ._. 
Microbes_NN2 both_RR produce_VV0 and_CC consume_VV0 carbon_NN1 dioxide_NN1 ,_, methane_NN1 and_CC other_JJ greenhouse_NN1 gases_NN2 and_CC may_VM play_VVI a_AT1 role_NN1 in_II determining_VVG the_AT success_NN1 of_IO efforts_NN2 to_TO curtail_VVI global_JJ warming_NN1 ._. 
Metagenomics-based_JJ systems_NN2 might_VM monitor_VVI environmental_JJ health_NN1 and_CC watch_VVI for_IF pathogens_NN2 ,_, whether_CSW naturally_RR emergent_JJ or_CC introduced_VVN by_II terrorists_NN2 ._. 
Metagenomics_NN2 could_VM diagnose_VVI a_AT1 broad_JJ selection_NN1 of_IO diseases_NN2 in_II humans_NN2 and_CC livestock_NN ,_, which_DDQ might_VM be_VBI treated_VVN with_IW probiotic_JJ therapies_NN2 (_( the_AT introduction_NN1 of_IO beneficial_JJ microbes_NN2 )_) ._. 
Newly_RR discovered_VVD microbes_NN2 could_VM be_VBI exploited_VVN in_II the_AT development_NN1 of_IO new_JJ antibiotics_NN2 ,_, in_II the_AT discovery_NN1 of_IO enzymes_NN2 to_TO extract_VVI glucose_NN1 from_II cellulose_NN1 (_( which_DDQ could_VM then_RT be_VBI fermented_VVN to_II ethanol_NN1 as_II a_AT1 fuel_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC in_II the_AT bioremediation_NN1 of_IO contaminated_JJ soil_NN1 or_CC water_NN1 ._. 
Nearly_RR all_DB our_APPGE scientific_JJ understanding_NN1 stems_VVZ from_II observing_VVG and_CC interrogating_VVG nature_NN1 at_II some_DD level_NN1 ._. 
Nature_NN1 as_CSA teacher_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX lecture_VVI or_CC provide_VVI study_NN1 guides_NN2 ._. 
Instead_RR natural_JJ systems_NN2 appeal_VV0 to_II our_APPGE innate_JJ curiosity_NN1 ,_, with_IW the_AT awesome_JJ and_CC strangely_RR beautiful_JJ compelling_VVG us_PPIO2 to_TO learn_VVI as_RG best_RRT we_PPIS2 can_VM ._. 
Evolution_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT unifying_JJ principle_NN1 for_IF comprehending_VVG all_DB life_NN1 on_II earth_NN1 ,_, and_CC applying_VVG its_APPGE lessons_NN2 about_II the_AT history_NN1 and_CC mechanisms_NN2 of_IO change_NN1 can_VM promote_VVI human_JJ well-being_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ was_VBDZ once_RR a_AT1 curiosity_NN1 is_VBZ now_RT a_AT1 powerful_JJ tool_NN1 ._. 
