<s>
When_CS researching_VVG Language_NN1 and_CC Gender_NN1 ,_, what_DDQ is_VBZ striking_VVG is_VBZ the_AT amount_NN1 of_IO literature_NN1 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ on_II the_AT subject_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 essay_NN1 will_VM look_VVI at_II some_DD of_IO this_DD1 literature_NN1 and_CC draw_VV0 conclusions_NN2 as_II21 to_II22 the_AT methodology_NN1 of_IO the_AT researcher_NN1 ,_, the_AT findings_NN2 of_IO investigations_NN2 and_CC the_AT conclusions_NN2 drawn_VVN by_II both_DB2 the_AT authors_NN2 of_IO previous_JJ research_NN1 and_CC myself_PPX1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Since_CS Language_NN1 and_CC Gender_NN1 is_VBZ such_DA an_AT1 extensive_JJ subject_NN1 ,_, I_PPIS1 have_VH0 chosen_VVN to_TO focus_VVI in_RR21 particular_RR22 on_II three_MC approaches_NN2 to_II Male_NN1 and_CC Female_JJ speech_NN1 :_: The_AT Deficiency_NN1 approach_NN1 ,_, The_AT Difference_NN1 approach_NN1 and_CC the_AT Dominance_NN1 approach_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
I_PPIS1 will_VM look_VVI at_II how_RRQ these_DD2 theories_NN2 were_VBDR devised_VVN ,_, what_DDQ research_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN done_VDN to_TO support_VVI them_PPHO2 and_CC the_AT conclusions_NN2 gained_VVN from_II this_DD1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
I_PPIS1 will_VM focus_VVI on_II meaning_NN1 rather_CS21 than_CS22 form_VVI and_CC so_RR my_APPGE viewpoint_NN1 will_VM be_VBI sociological_JJ and_CC qualitative_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
I_PPIS1 will_VM also_RR look_VVI at_II the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II gender_NN1 and_CC power_NN1 and_CC how_RRQ this_DD1 affects_VVZ the_AT theories_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
I_PPIS1 will_VM give_VVI a_AT1 brief_JJ overview_NN1 of_IO each_DD1 of_IO the_AT approaches_NN2 before_II more_RGR detailed_JJ comparisons_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT deficiency_NN1 theory_NN1 was_VBDZ proposed_VVN by_II Robin_NP1 Lakoff_NP1 in_II 1975_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
Lakoff_NP1 suggested_VVD that_CST women_NN2 speak_VV0 an_AT1 inferior_JJ version_NN1 of_IO the_AT language_NN1 spoken_VVN by_II males_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
She_PPHS1 was_VBDZ the_AT first_MD linguist_NN1 to_TO point_VVI out_RP that_CST women_NN2 use_VV0 more_DAR tag_NN1 questions_NN2 than_CSN men_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 had_VHD been_VBN pointed_VVN out_RP that_CST women_NN2 used_VVD several_DA2 devices_NN2 in_II their_APPGE speech_NN1 more_RRR than_CSN men_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Along_II21 with_II22 tag_NN1 questions_NN2 ,_, these_DD2 included_VVN :_: more_DAR hedges_NN2 ,_, more_RGR overt_JJ prestige_NN1 forms_NN2 and_CC over-reporting_VVG on_II usage_NN1 of_IO prestige_NN1 forms_NN2 ,_, more_RGR intensifying_JJ devices_NN2 ,_, finer_JJR discriminations_NN2 in_RP ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, colour_NN1 terms_NN2 ,_, more_DAR baby_NN1 talk_NN1 and_CC weaker_JJR expletives_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 'oh_NN1 dear'_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 are_VBR still_RR accepted_VVN as_CSA features_NN2 of_IO women_NN2 's_GE speech_NN1 but_CCB it_PPH1 was_VBDZ how_RRQ Lakoff_NP1 interpreted_VVD this_DD1 research_NN1 that_CST led_VVD to_II the_AT 'deficiency_NN1 theory'_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Lakoff_NP1 saw_VVD language_NN1 as_CSA reflecting_VVG society_NN1 and_CC suggested_VVD that_CST women_NN2 spoke_VVD an_AT1 inferior_JJ version_NN1 of_IO the_AT language_NN1 because_CS they_PPHS2 were_VBDR inferior_JJ in_II society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
According_II21 to_II22 Lakoff_NP1 ,_, women_NN2 'are_NN1 socialised_VVD to_TO believe_VVI that_CST asserting_VVG themselves_PPX2 strongly_RR is_VBZ n't_XX nice_JJ or_CC ladylike_JJ or_CC even_RR feminine'_VV0 (_( Lakoff_NP1 1975:54_MC in_II Coates_NP1 1993:116_MC )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
Lakoff_VV0 therefore_RR described_VVN women_NN2 's_GE language_NN1 as_II ,_, among_II other_JJ things_NN2 ,_, tentative_JJ and_CC unassertive_JJ ,_, hence_RR the_AT 'deficiency_NN1 theory'_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 theory_NN1 is_VBZ now_RT thought_VVN of_IO as_RG dated_JJ since_CS changes_NN2 in_II society_NN1 ,_, and_CC follow_VV0 up_RP research_NN1 have_VH0 discounted_VVN many_DA2 of_IO the_AT principles_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Lakoff_NP1 's_GE observations_NN2 are_VBR generally_RR supported_VVN but_CCB her_APPGE reasoning_NN1 gained_VVN from_II the_AT studies_NN2 has_VHZ been_VBN replaced_VVN by_II other_JJ more_RGR modern_JJ theories_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ noticed_VVN that_CST most_DAT of_IO the_AT research_NN1 done_VDN had_VHD been_VBN focused_VVN on_II female_JJ language_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT focus_NN1 may_VM have_VHI been_VBN leading_VVG to_II false_JJ theories_NN2 and_CC further_JJR research_NN1 was_VBDZ needed_VVN into_II male_JJ language_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Five_MC years_NNT2 later_RRR another_DD1 similar_JJ theory_NN1 was_VBDZ put_VVN forward_RL by_II Dale_NP1 Spender_NP1 ,_, which_DDQ was_VBDZ named_VVN the_AT dominance_NN1 theory_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT difference_NN1 with_IW this_DD1 theory_NN1 was_VBDZ that_CST it_PPH1 saw_VVD language_NN1 as_CSA both_RR a_AT1 construction_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 reflection_NN1 of_IO society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 also_RR looked_VVD at_II male_JJ language_NN1 compared_VVN to_II female_JJ language_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Spender_NP1 saw_VVD female_JJ language_NN1 as_CSA 'borrowed'_JJ and_CC highlighted_VVD that_DD1 language_NN1 is_VBZ andocentric_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Evidence_NN1 for_IF this_DD1 includes_VVZ gender_NN1 marking_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT male_JJ form_NN1 is_VBZ usually_RR the_AT unmarked_JJ form_NN1 and_CC the_AT female_JJ form_NN1 is_VBZ usually_RR marked_JJ e.g._REX Mr/Mrs_NNB ,_, Prince/Princess_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Semantic_JJ derogation_NN1 also_RR occurs_VVZ on_II many_DA2 words_NN2 relating_VVG to_II females_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Many_DA2 of_IO the_AT words_NN2 used_VMK to_TO denote_VVI female_NN1 could_VM also_RR imply_VVI that_CST the_AT female_NN1 is_VBZ either_RR inferior_JJ or_CC sexually_RR promiscuous_JJ for_REX21 example_REX22 master/mistress_NN1 ,_, bachelor/spinster_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Our_APPGE language_NN1 however_RR ,_, is_VBZ historical_JJ and_CC many_DA2 of_IO these_DD2 presumptions_NN2 contained_VVN in_II the_AT language_NN1 could_VM be_VBI out_JJ31 of_JJ32 date_JJ33 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 will_VM be_VBI discussed_VVN further_JJR later_RRR in_II the_AT essay_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Linguists_NN2 are_VBR now_RT generally_RR split_VVN between_II the_AT dominance_NN1 theory_NN1 and_CC another_DD1 approach_NN1 known_VVN as_II the_AT difference_NN1 theory_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 theory_NN1 is_VBZ more_RGR recent_JJ and_CC strives_VVZ towards_II a_AT1 less_RGR negative_JJ view_NN1 of_IO female_JJ language_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Some_DD researchers_NN2 in_II the_AT late_JJ 1980s_MC2 argued_VVD that_CST "_" the_AT dominance_NN1 model_NN1 had_VHD become_VVN a_AT1 deficit_NN1 model_NN1 ,_, that_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO interpreting_VVG the_AT linguistic_JJ facts_NN2 that_CST represented_VVD men_NN2 's_GE language_NN1 as_II the_AT norm_NN1 and_CC women_NN2 's_GE language_NN1 as_CSA deviant_JJ "_" (_( Coates_NP1 1998:413_MC )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT theory_NN1 focuses_VVZ on_II different_JJ conversational_JJ goals_NN2 ,_, and_CC by_II doing_VDG so_RR ,_, does_VDZ not_XX see_VVI one_PN1 as_RG superior_JJ to_II the_AT other_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Research_NN1 into_II the_AT different_JJ theories_NN2 on_II language_NN1 and_CC gender_NN1 is_VBZ very_RG broad_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_CSA stated_VVN earlier_RRR ,_, the_AT two_MC later_JJR theories_NN2 have_VH0 overshadowed_VVN the_AT deficiency_NN1 theory_NN1 now_RT and_CC many_DA2 linguists_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX count_VVI it_PPH1 as_II a_AT1 valid_JJ and_CC research-led_JJ approach_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
"_" Lakoff_NN1 seems_VVZ happy_JJ to_TO present_VVI folklinguistic_JJ material_NN1 without_IW the_AT support_NN1 of_IO any_DD research_NN1 findings_NN2 to_TO confirm_VVI her_APPGE statements_NN2 "_" (_( Coates_NP1 1993:23_MC )_) Coates_NP1 also_RR suggests_VVZ that_CST Lakoff_NP1 may_VM be_VBI trying_VVG to_TO prescribe_VVI how_RRQ women_NN2 ought_VMK to_TO talk_VVI rather_II21 than_II22 describing_VVG how_RRQ they_PPHS2 do_VD0 talk_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 perhaps_RR spurred_VVN research_NN1 and_CC development_NN1 of_IO the_AT difference_NN1 theory_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
On_II reading_VVG some_DD of_IO the_AT literature_NN1 on_II the_AT deficiency_NN1 approach_NN1 ,_, I_PPIS1 agree_VV0 with_IW Coates_NP1 in_II that_DD1 today_RT 's_GE society_NN1 should_VM look_VVI more_RRR to_II description_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 prescription_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Lakoff_NP1 's_GE theory_NN1 has_VHZ not_XX stood_VVN the_AT test_NN1 of_IO time_NNT1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Society_NN1 has_VHZ changed_VVN so_RG much_DA1 in_II the_AT last_MD 30_MC years_NNT2 and_CC generally_RR women_NN2 are_VBR no_RR21 longer_RR22 seen_VVN as_CSA inferior_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
I_PPIS1 will_VM therefore_RR take_VVI a_AT1 focus_NN1 from_II this_DD1 point_NN1 on_II the_AT dominance_NN1 theory_NN1 and_CC the_AT difference_NN1 theory_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT dominance_NN1 approach_NN1 focuses_VVZ on_II the_AT male_NN1 's_GE dominance_NN1 in_II society_NN1 and_CC therefore_RR concludes_VVZ that_CST the_AT speech_NN1 developed_VVN by_II the_AT male_NN1 of_IO the_AT species_NN has_VHZ inherent_JJ supremacy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Being_VBG man-made_JJ ,_, language_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX neutral_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 contains_VVZ attitudes_NN2 and_CC beliefs_NN2 about_II what_DDQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ to_TO be_VBI male_JJ and_CC what_DDQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ to_TO be_VBI female_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT dominance_NN1 approach_NN1 views_NN2 language_NN1 as_II a_AT1 gendered_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Before_II going_VVG any_DD further_JJR in_II this_DD1 discussion_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ to_TO be_VBI pointed_VVN out_RP that_DD1 power_NN1 has_VHZ a_AT1 large_JJ influence_NN1 when_CS studying_VVG the_AT dominance_NN1 theory_NN1 of_IO language_NN1 and_CC gender_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 lot_NN1 of_IO the_AT language_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ seen_VVN as_CSA typical_JJ male_JJ language_NN1 correlates_VVZ with_IW that_DD1 seen_VVN as_CSA powerful_JJ language_NN1 ,_, and_CC typical_JJ female_JJ language_NN1 is_VBZ sometimes_RT pointed_VVN to_II as_RG powerless_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Research_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN done_VDN and_CC it_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN found_VVN that_CST males_NN2 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO use_VVI 'single-voiced_JJ discourse'_NN1 where_CS the_AT subject_NN1 presents_VVZ only_RR their_APPGE perspective_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Females_NN2 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO use_VVI 'double-voiced_JJ discourse'_NN1 where_RRQ ,_, whilst_CS maintaining_VVG their_APPGE own_DA perspective_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 take_VV0 the_AT other_JJ person_NN1 's_VBZ into_II account_NN1 also_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT dominance_NN1 approach_NN1 sees_VVZ this_DD1 as_RG unassertive_JJ and_CC therefore_RR less_RGR powerful_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Language_NN1 can_VM be_VBI used_VVN by_II males_NN2 to_TO assert_VVI social_JJ dominance_NN1 ,_, hence_RR tendencies_NN2 to_TO brag_VVI ,_, boast_VV0 ,_, heckle_NN1 and_CC threaten_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 'conversational_JJ dominance'_NN1 is_VBZ described_VVN by_II Jennifer_NP1 Coates_NP1 as_II "_" strategies_NN2 which_DDQ enable_VV0 speakers_NN2 to_TO dominate_VVI their_APPGE partners_NN2 in_II talk_NN1 "_" (_( Coates_NP1 1998:161_MC )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
She_PPHS1 highlights_VVZ that_CST since_CS research_NN1 has_VHZ shown_VVN that_CST men_NN2 use_VV0 more_DAR of_IO these_DD2 strategies_NN2 ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR seen_VVN as_CSA dominant_JJ in_II conversation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
One_MC1 of_IO these_DD2 strategies_NN2 is_VBZ interruption_NN1 and_CC Conversational_JJ Analysis_NN1 research_NN1 done_VDN by_II Zimmerman_NP1 and_CC West_ND1 (_( 1975_MC )_) shows_VVZ that_CST "_" interruptions_NN2 were_VBDR far_RG more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO occur_VVI than_CSN overlaps_NN2 and_CC both_DB2 types_NN2 of_IO simultaneity_NN1 were_VBDR much_RR more_RGR frequently_RR initiated_VVN by_II males_NN2 than_CSN females_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_REX21 example_REX22 ..._... 96%_NNU of_IO the_AT interruptions_NN2 were_VBDR by_II males_NN2 to_II females_NN2 "_" (_( Zimmerman_NP1 and_CC West_ND1 in_II Coates_NP1 1998:168_MC )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
Male_JJ language_NN1 asserts_VVZ status_NN1 and_CC dominance_NN1 also_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 higher_JJR frequency_NN1 of_IO swear_NN1 words_NN2 is_VBZ found_VVN in_II male_JJ conversation_NN1 and_CC features_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 minimal_JJ responses_NN2 which_DDQ the_AT research_NN1 done_VDN by_II Leet-Pellegrini_NN1 shows_VVZ to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 source_NN1 of_IO strength_NN1 rather_CS21 than_CS22 defeat_VVI ;_; making_VVG the_AT partner_NN1 feel_VVI that_CST what_DDQ they_PPHS2 have_VH0 to_TO say_VVI is_VBZ trivial_JJ and_CC he_PPHS1 is_VBZ uninterested_JJ by_II it_PPH1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 are_VBR seen_VVN as_CSA dominance_NN1 strategies_NN2 and_CC the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST men_NN2 use_VV0 them_PPHO2 more_RGR frequently_RR indicates_VVZ to_II dominance_NN1 theorists_NN2 that_CST men_NN2 are_VBR dominant_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Nevertheless_RR ,_, since_CS today_RT 's_GE society_NN1 sees_VVZ many_DA2 women_NN2 in_II high-status_JJ roles_NN2 ,_, is_VBZ it_PPH1 gender_NN1 or_CC power_NN1 that_CST overrides_VVZ the_AT other_JJ where_CS language_NN1 is_VBZ concerned_JJ ?_? 
</s>
<s>
Candace_VV0 West_ND1 is_VBZ among_II the_AT researchers_NN2 who_PNQS have_VH0 looked_VVN into_II this_DD1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ widely_RR accepted_VVN that_CST interruptions_NN2 are_VBR used_VVN to_TO convey_VVI dominance_NN1 and_CC control_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
"_" Men_NN2 's_GE interruptions_NN2 of_IO women_NN2 in_II cross-sex_JJ conversations_NN2 constitute_VV0 an_AT1 exercise_NN1 of_IO power_NN1 and_CC dominance_NN1 over_II their_APPGE conversational_JJ partners_NN2 ._. "_" 
</s>
<s>
(_( West_ND1 in_II Coates_NP1 1998:396_MC )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
West_ND1 's_GE research_NN1 into_II power_NN1 ,_, status_NN1 and_CC gender_NN1 was_VBDZ done_VDN on_II physician-patient_JJ relationships_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
21_MC patients_NN2 were_VBDR observed_VVN (_( recorded_VVN with_IW unobtrusive_JJ cameras_NN2 and_CC microphones_NN2 )_) ,_, 10_MC males_NN2 and_CC 11_MC females_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Her_APPGE findings_NN2 were_VBDR that_CST out_II21 of_II22 188_MC interruptions_NN2 encountered_VVN in_II a_AT1 patient-physician_JJ conversation_NN1 where_CS the_AT physician_NN1 was_VBDZ male_JJ ,_, 67%_NNU were_VBDR initiated_VVN by_II the_AT physician_NN1 and_CC 33%_NNU by_II the_AT patient_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II a_AT1 patient-physician_JJ conversation_NN1 where_CS the_AT physician_NN1 was_VBDZ female_JJ ,_, however_RR ,_, the_AT physician_NN1 initiated_VVD just_RR 32%_NNU of_IO interruptions_NN2 and_CC the_AT patient_NN1 ,_, 68%_NNU ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN that_CST the_AT figures_NN2 are_VBR almost_RR exactly_RR reversed_VVN from_II the_AT male_JJ doctor_NN1 figures_NN2 to_II the_AT female_JJ doctor_NN1 figures_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 leads_VVZ me_PPIO1 to_TO think_VVI that_CST males_NN2 and_CC females_NN2 may_VM enforce_VVI dominance_NN1 and_CC control_VVI in_II different_JJ ways_NN2 or_CC possibly_RR even_RR view_VV0 power_NN1 from_II different_JJ perspectives_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT study_NN1 also_RR shows_VVZ the_AT different_JJ ways_NN2 not_XX just_RR in_II how_RRQ women_NN2 and_CC men_NN2 talk_VV0 ,_, but_CCB how_RRQ they_PPHS2 are_VBR talked_VVN about_II ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT main_JJ point_NN1 that_CST comes_VVZ across_RL is_VBZ that_CST if_CS the_AT physician_NN1 is_VBZ female_JJ she_PPHS1 is_VBZ referred_VVN to_II as_II a_AT1 'lady_NN1 doctor'_NN1 or_CC 'female_NN1 doctor'_NN1 with_IW obvious_JJ gender_NN1 marking_NN1 whereas_CS male_JJ physicians_NN2 are_VBR simply_RR referred_VVN to_II as_CSA 'doctors_NN2 '_GE ,_, with_IW no_AT morphological_JJ gender_NN1 marking_NN1 but_CCB often_RR an_AT1 inherent_JJ male_JJ gender_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
West_ND1 concludes_VVZ :_: "_" gender_NN1 can_VM have_VHI primacy_NN1 over_II status_NN1 where_RRQ women_NN2 physicians_NN2 are_VBR concerned_JJ "_" (_( West_ND1 in_II Coates_NP1 1998:409_MC )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
Deborah_NP1 Tannen_NP1 also_RR looked_VVN at_II power_NN1 relations_NN2 in_II her_APPGE work_NN1 place_NN1 study_NN1 Talking_VVG from_II 9_MC to_II 5_MC (_( 1994_MC )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
Female_JJ managers_NN2 are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO soften_VVI a_AT1 blow_NN1 when_CS criticising_VVG an_AT1 employee_NN1 whereas_CS male_JJ managers_NN2 are_VBR more_RGR direct_JJ with_IW criticism_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 shows_VVZ differences_NN2 in_II management_NN1 styles_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Women_NN2 's_GE management_NN1 style_NN1 tends_VVZ to_TO be_VBI more_RGR consultative_JJ and_CC inclusive_JJ ,_, whilst_CS men_NN2 's_GE style_NN1 seems_VVZ to_TO be_VBI more_DAR directive_NN1 and_CC task-oriented_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT patient-physician_JJ study_NN1 shows_VVZ some_DD evidence_NN1 for_IF the_AT dominance_NN1 theory_NN1 but_CCB the_AT management_NN1 study_NN1 by_II Tannen_NP1 could_VM take_VVI the_AT difference_NN1 perspective_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT difference_NN1 approach_NN1 concentrates_VVZ more_RRR on_II the_AT contrasting_JJ qualities_NN2 of_IO male_NN1 and_CC female_JJ speech_NN1 and_CC points_VVZ out_RP that_CST although_CS the_AT styles_NN2 of_IO speech_NN1 may_VM be_VBI different_JJ they_PPHS2 are_VBR not_XX necessarily_RR unequal_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 does_VDZ not_XX look_VVI at_II power_NN1 and_CC therefore_RR does_VDZ not_XX see_VVI either_RR male_JJ or_CC female_JJ as_CSA dominant_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT workplace_NN1 study_NN1 done_VDN by_II Deborah_NP1 Tannen_NP1 is_VBZ not_XX necessarily_RR to_TO do_VDI with_IW power_NN1 affecting_VVG gender_NN1 or_CC vice_RR21 versa_RR22 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ to_TO do_VDI with_IW how_RRQ each_DD1 gender_NN1 exercises_VVZ power_NN1 in_II different_JJ ways_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II fact_NN1 ,_, men_NN2 and_CC women_NN2 have_VH0 different_JJ conversational_JJ goals_NN2 and_CC aims_VVZ to_TO fulfil_VVI through_II language_NN1 and_CC this_DD1 may_VM have_VHI underlying_JJ reasons_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Women_NN2 have_VH0 the_AT conversational_JJ goal_NN1 of_IO being_VBG co-operative_JJ and_CC men_NN2 have_VH0 the_AT aim_NN1 of_IO being_VBG competitive_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 may_VM indicate_VVI that_CST values_NN2 are_VBR different_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 may_VM also_RR indicate_VVI that_CST males_NN2 and_CC females_NN2 have_VH0 different_JJ sub-cultures_NN2 and_CC are_VBR socialised_VVN in_II different_JJ ways_NN2 from_II a_AT1 young_JJ age_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_REX21 example_REX22 it_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN found_VVN that_CST mothers_NN2 often_RR change_VV0 their_APPGE speech_NN1 to_TO match_VVI what_DDQ the_AT child_NN1 can_VM understand_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 mother_NN1 's_GE mean_JJ length_NN1 of_IO utterance_NN1 is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO correlate_VVI with_IW her_APPGE child_NN1 's_GE level_NN1 of_IO comprehension_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, fathers_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO use_VVI longer_JJR more_RRR difficult_JJ words_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
When_CS a_AT1 father_NN1 is_VBZ talking_VVG with_IW a_AT1 child_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 take_VV0 turns_VVZ less_RGR often_RR than_CSN when_CS a_AT1 mother_NN1 is_VBZ talking_VVG with_IW a_AT1 child_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Another_DD1 socialisation_NN1 difference_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST girls_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI socialised_VVN with_IW other_JJ girls_NN2 and_CC males_NN2 with_IW males_NN2 ._. 
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"_" At_II school_NN1 ,_, girls_NN2 sit_VV0 in_II circles_NN2 talking_VVG and_CC each_DD1 mirroring_VVG the_AT group_NN1 's_GE body_NN1 language_NN1 ._. 
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You_PPY can_VM not_XX identify_VVI a_AT1 leader_NN1 "_" (_( Pease_NP1 1999:147_MC )_) This_DD1 shows_VVZ that_CST girls_NN2 are_VBR inclusive_JJ and_CC co-operative_JJ from_II an_AT1 early_JJ age_NN1 ._. 
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"_" Boys_NN2 '_GE groups_NN2 have_VH0 a_AT1 hierarchy_NN1 with_IW leaders_NN2 who_PNQS can_VM be_VBI identified_VVN by_II their_APPGE superior_JJ or_CC assertive_JJ talk_NN1 and_CC body_NN1 language_NN1 ,_, and_CC each_DD1 boy_NN1 hustles_VVZ for_IF status_NN1 in_II the_AT group_NN1 "_" (_( Pease_NP1 1999:149_MC )_) ._. 
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This_DD1 shows_VVZ that_CST a_AT1 dominance_NN1 hierarchy_NN1 establishes_VVZ at_II an_AT1 early_JJ age_NN1 ,_, and_CC you_PPY can_VM tell_VVI the_AT dominant_JJ males_NN2 by_II their_APPGE language_NN1 ._. 
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Although_CS this_DD1 mentions_VVZ dominance_NN1 ,_, this_DD1 particular_JJ dominance_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX to_TO do_VDI with_IW gender_NN1 ._. 
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This_DD1 is_VBZ just_RR an_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO hierarchies_NN2 within_II a_AT1 gender_NN1 ._. 
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It_PPH1 does_VDZ not_XX suggest_VVI that_CST males_NN2 are_VBR dominant_JJ and_CC females_NN2 are_VBR powerless_JJ ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 describes_VVZ the_AT behaviour_NN1 of_IO children_NN2 at_II a_AT1 young_JJ age_NN1 and_CC suggests_VVZ this_DD1 as_II a_AT1 possibility_NN1 as_II21 to_II22 why_RRQ male_JJ speech_NN1 and_CC female_JJ speech_NN1 are_VBR so_RG different_JJ i.e._REX that_CST they_PPHS2 are_VBR brought_VVN up_RP in_II different_JJ sub-cultures_NN2 ._. 
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Deborah_NP1 Tannen_NP1 (_( 1994_MC )_) documents_VVZ diary_NN1 studies_NN2 of_IO how_RGQ male_JJ and_CC female_JJ talk_NN1 differs_VVZ in_II an_AT1 office_NN1 ._. 
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Her_APPGE findings_NN2 were_VBDR that_CST women_NN2 chat_VV0 informally_RR far_RG more_DAR than_CSN men_NN2 in_II the_AT workplace_NN1 ._. 
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She_PPHS1 says_VVZ this_DD1 maintains_VVZ social_JJ bonds_NN2 and_CC communication_NN1 channels_NN2 ._. 
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Tannen_NP1 's_GE research_NN1 shows_VVZ that_CST women_NN2 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO talk_VVI about_II relationships_NN2 ,_, children_NN2 ,_, clothes_NN2 and_CC hairstyles_NN2 ._. 
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Men_NN2 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO talk_VVI about_II technology_NN1 ,_, cars_NN2 and_CC sport_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 supports_VVZ the_AT idea_NN1 that_CST women_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI more_RGR affective_JJ (_( interpersonal_JJ )_) in_II their_APPGE speech_NN1 and_CC men_NN2 more_RGR referential_JJ (_( conveying_VVG information_NN1 )_) ._. 
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<s>
Janet_NP1 Holmes_NP1 researched_VVN into_II this_DD1 and_CC in_II her_APPGE article_NN1 Women_NN2 's_GE Talk_NN1 :_: The_AT Question_NN1 of_IO Sociolinguistic_JJ Universals_NN2 she_PPHS1 flags_VVZ an_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 man_NN1 talking_VVG about_II his_APPGE job_NN1 as_II a_AT1 school_NN1 principal_NN1 and_CC mentioning_VVG in_II passing_VVG physical_JJ symptoms_NN2 of_IO stress_NN1 that_CST he_PPHS1 had_VHD encountered_VVN ._. 
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The_AT woman_NN1 picks_VVZ up_RP on_II this_DD1 and_CC concentrates_VVZ her_APPGE contribution_NN1 to_II the_AT conversation_NN1 on_II this_DD1 matter_NN1 and_CC asks_VVZ if_CS he_PPHS1 has_VHZ seen_VVN a_AT1 doctor_NN1 and_CC if_CS he_PPHS1 is_VBZ okay_JJ now_RT ._. 
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The_AT men_NN2 in_II the_AT conversation_NN1 see_VV0 this_DD1 as_RG irrelevant_JJ because_CS they_PPHS2 were_VBDR focussing_VVG on_II the_AT information_NN1 about_II the_AT job_NN1 and_CC not_XX the_AT effects_NN2 that_CST it_PPH1 had_VHD on_II the_AT speaker_NN1 ._. 
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Holmes_NP1 concludes_VVZ :_: "_" women_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO focus_VVI on_II the_AT affective_JJ functions_NN2 of_IO an_AT1 interaction_NN1 more_RGR often_RR than_CSN men_NN2 do_VD0 "_" (_( Holmes_NP1 in_II Coates_NP1 1998:463_MC )_) ._. 
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The_AT general_JJ consensus_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST men_NN2 respond_VV0 to_II things_NN2 and_CC women_NN2 respond_VV0 to_II people_NN ._. 
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<s>
Scientific_JJ research_NN1 into_II brain_NN1 functions_NN2 show_VV0 that_CST girls_NN2 respond_VV0 to_II people_NN and_CC faces_NN2 and_CC boys_NN2 respond_VV0 to_II objects_NN2 and_CC shapes_NN2 ._. 
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"_" At_II 12_MC weeks_NNT2 old_JJ ,_, girls_NN2 can_VM distinguish_VVI pictures_NN2 of_IO family_NN1 from_II strangers_NN2 ,_, while_CS boys_NN2 can_VM not_XX ,_, but_CCB boys_NN2 are_VBR better_JJR at_II relocating_VVG a_AT1 lost_JJ toy_NN1 ._. "_" 
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<s>
(_( Pease_NP1 1999:147_MC )_) Pease_NP1 cites_VVZ an_AT1 experiment_NN1 into_II the_AT different_JJ genders_NN2 at_II pre-school_JJ age_NN1 ._. 
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Each_DD1 child_NN1 was_VBDZ given_VVN a_AT1 pair_NN of_IO binocular_JJ eye-viewers_NN2 that_CST showed_VVD objects_NN2 to_II one_MC1 eye_NN1 and_CC people_NN 's_GE faces_NN2 to_II the_AT other_JJ ._. 
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When_CS asked_VVN about_II this_DD1 ,_, the_AT girls_NN2 remembered_VVD more_DAR of_IO the_AT faces_NN2 and_CC emotions_NN2 shown_VVN on_II these_DD2 faces_NN2 and_CC the_AT boys_NN2 remembered_VVD more_DAR of_IO the_AT objects_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE shapes_NN2 ._. 
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All_DB these_DD2 differences_NN2 can_VM potentially_RR lead_VVI to_II miscommunication_NN1 in_II male_JJ female_JJ relationships_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Because_II21 of_II22 the_AT different_JJ functions_NN2 of_IO talk_NN1 for_IF the_AT different_JJ sexes_NN2 ,_, different_JJ vocabulary_NN1 is_VBZ used_VVN and_CC that_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 main_JJ area_NN1 for_IF miscommunication_NN1 ._. 
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This_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT focus_NN1 of_IO many_DA2 books_NN2 about_II relationships_NN2 between_II men_NN2 and_CC women_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
"_" Because_CS vocabulary_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 hotspot_NN1 in_II a_AT1 women_NN2 's_GE brain_NN1 ,_, she_PPHS1 can_VM feel_VVI the_AT precise_JJ definition_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 is_VBZ irrelevant_JJ ._. 
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<s>
She_PPHS1 'll_VM then_RT take_VVI poetic_JJ license_NN1 with_IW words_NN2 ,_, or_CC wo_VM n't_XX shy_VVI away_II21 from_II22 exaggeration_NN1 simply_RR for_IF effect_NN1 "_" (_( Pease_NP1 1999:105_MC )_) ._. 
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<s>
Much_DA1 of_IO this_DD1 'self-help'_JJ style_NN1 literature_NN1 takes_VVZ the_AT difference_NN1 approach_NN1 and_CC sees_VVZ both_RR male_JJ and_CC female_JJ styles_NN2 as_CSA equal_JJ but_CCB diverse_JJ ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 also_RR focuses_VVZ on_II what_DDQ lies_VVZ behind_II the_AT language_NN1 ,_, in_II attitudes_NN2 and_CC values_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Most_DAT of_IO the_AT research_NN1 carried_VVN out_RP on_II the_AT difference_NN1 theory_NN1 has_VHZ benefited_VVN from_II the_AT recent_JJ development_NN1 of_IO the_AT technique_NN1 of_IO Conversational_JJ Analysis_NN1 (_( CA_NP1 )_) ._. 
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The_AT difference_NN1 approach_NN1 can_VM take_VVI a_AT1 more_RGR sociological_JJ perspective_NN1 if_CS CA_NP1 is_VBZ used_VVN and_CC look_VV0 more_RGR objectively_RR at_II evidence_NN1 if_CS everything_PN1 is_VBZ orthographically_RR transcribed_VVN in_II as_RG much_DA1 detail_NN1 as_CSA possible_JJ ._. 
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<s>
Since_CS I_PPIS1 am_VBM focussing_VVG on_II language_NN1 and_CC gender_NN1 from_II a_AT1 sociolinguistic_JJ point_NN1 of_IO view_NN1 ,_, most_DAT of_IO the_AT research_NN1 I_PPIS1 am_VBM looking_VVG at_II is_VBZ qualitative_JJ ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 may_VM lead_VVI to_II more_RGR subjective_JJ results_NN2 but_CCB I_PPIS1 feel_VV0 that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ impossible_JJ to_TO get_VVI reasons_NN2 from_II a_AT1 quantitative_JJ study_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ where_RRQ the_AT Conversation_NN1 Analysis_NN1 is_VBZ needed_VVN ._. 
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<s>
I_PPIS1 feel_VV0 that_CST the_AT dominance_NN1 approach_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX dissimilar_JJ to_II the_AT deficiency_NN1 approach_NN1 in_II that_DD1 it_PPH1 prescribes_VVZ reasons_NN2 for_IF why_RRQ language_NN1 is_VBZ used_VVN differently_RR by_II males_NN2 and_CC females_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
These_DD2 are_VBR focused_VVN around_II male_JJ dominance_NN1 and_CC an_AT1 inherent_JJ male_JJ bias_NN1 in_II the_AT English_JJ language_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
I_PPIS1 agree_VV0 with_IW Spender_NP1 that_DD1 language_NN1 used_VMK to_TO talk_VVI about_II males_NN2 is_VBZ often_RR more_RGR complimentary_JJ than_CSN that_CST used_VMK to_TO talk_VVI about_II females_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Although_CS gender-marking_NN1 is_VBZ obvious_JJ and_CC semantic_JJ derogation_NN1 in_II certain_JJ instances_NN2 can_VM not_XX be_VBI denied_VVN ,_, I_PPIS1 think_VV0 that_CST the_AT dominance_NN1 view_NN1 is_VBZ a_RR21 little_RR22 outdated_JJ when_CS looking_VVG at_II the_AT language_NN1 used_VVN by_II the_AT sexes_NN2 ._. 
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To_TO say_VVI that_CST males_NN2 use_VV0 different_JJ speech_NN1 styles_NN2 to_II females_NN2 is_VBZ undeniable_JJ but_CCB to_TO say_VVI that_CST men_NN2 use_VV0 dominant_JJ speech_NN1 styles_NN2 is_VBZ debatable_JJ ._. 
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<s>
I_PPIS1 do_VD0 agree_VVI that_DD1 power_NN1 affects_VVZ language_NN1 but_CCB I_PPIS1 feel_VV0 that_DD1 gender_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 different_JJ sociolinguistic_JJ variable_NN1 from_II power_NN1 and_CC as_CSA women_NN2 gain_VV0 higher_JJR status_NN1 positions_NN2 ,_, the_AT language_NN1 they_PPHS2 use_VV0 is_VBZ not_XX inferior_JJ ,_, but_CCB different_JJ from_II that_DD1 used_VVD by_II a_AT1 man_NN1 in_II the_AT same_DA position_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ due_II21 to_II22 the_AT different_JJ values_NN2 of_IO males_NN2 and_CC females_NN2 and_CC the_AT different_JJ conversational_JJ aims_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT difference_NN1 approach_NN1 gives_VVZ a_AT1 description_NN1 of_IO the_AT differences_NN2 and_CC offers_NN2 reasons_NN2 to_TO do_VDI with_IW socialisation_NN1 and_CC not_XX power_NN1 ._. 
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