<s>
UNIVERSITY_NN1 OF_IO EDINBURGH_NP1 ,_, DEPARTMENT_NN1 OF_IO HISTORY_NN1 Which_DDQ Contributed_VVD More_RRR to_II the_AT Outbreak_NN1 of_IO the_AT Spanish_JJ Civil_JJ War_NN1 ,_, The_AT Reforms_NN2 or_CC the_AT Weaknesses_NN2 of_IO Republican_NN1 Governments_NN2 ?_? 
</s>
<s>
KIERAN_NP1 LEE_NP1 TUTORS_NN2 NAME_VV0 :_: JILL_NP1 STEVENSON_NP1 20th_MD of_IO November_NPM1 1990_MC The_AT republican_JJ government_NN1 took_VVD power_NN1 in_II Spain_NP1 on_II April_NPM1 14th_MD ,_, 1931_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Prime_JJ Minister_NN1 was_VBDZ Alcala_NP1 Zamora_NP1 who_PNQS lead_VV0 a_AT1 coalition_NN1 government_NN1 of_IO republican_JJ radicals_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT republic_NN1 inherited_VVD the_AT traditional_JJ problems_NN2 of_IO the_AT Spanish_JJ state_NN1 ;_; the_AT rural_JJ unemployment_NN1 ,_, industrial_JJ under_II development_NN1 ,_, and_CC demands_NN2 for_IF local_JJ rights_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II trying_VVG to_TO overcome_VVI these_DD2 problems_NN2 the_AT first_MD republican_JJ government_NN1 of_IO 1931-33_MCMC set_VV0 the_AT stage_NN1 for_IF things_NN2 to_TO come_VVI ;_; the_AT political_JJ alienation_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 the_AT right_NN1 and_CC left_JJ wings_NN2 of_IO the_AT political_JJ spectrum_NN1 in_II Spain_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Unable_JK to_TO find_VVI common_JJ points_NN2 the_AT moderate_JJ reform_NN1 produced_VVD fear_NN1 in_II the_AT right_NN1 and_CC disillusionment_NN1 with_IW republican_JJ politics_NN1 in_II the_AT left_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Increasingly_RR ,_, the_AT middle_JJ ground_NN1 lost_VVN to_II the_AT growing_JJ political_JJ polarisation_NN1 of_IO the_AT right_NN1 or_CC left_VVD ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ the_AT republic_NN1 's_GE failure_NN1 to_TO find_VVI a_AT1 lasting_JJ democratic_JJ consensus_NN1 that_CST eventually_RR pushed_VVN republican_JJ politics_NN1 into_II violence_NN1 and_CC war_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX are_VBR three_MC periods_NN2 to_II republican_JJ reform_NN1 prior_II21 to_II22 the_AT Civil_JJ War_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 consists_VVZ of_IO the_AT periods_NN2 of_IO time_NNT1 between_II the_AT abdication_NN1 of_IO the_AT king_NN1 in_II 1931_MC and_CC November_NPM1 1933_MC ,_, between_II November_NPM1 1933_MC and_CC the_AT election_NN1 of_IO the_AT Popular_JJ Front_NN1 in_II 1936_MC ,_, and_CC from_II February_NPM1 1936_MC to_II the_AT outbreak_NN1 of_IO the_AT Civil_JJ War_NN1 in_II July_NPM1 1936_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
Within_II this_DD1 period_NN1 republican_NN1 politics_NN1 became_VVD polarised_VVN between_II extreme_JJ right_NN1 and_CC left_JJ as_CSA reform_NN1 and_CC counter-reform_VV0 disillusioned_JJ people_NN with_IW the_AT republican_JJ Parliamentary_JJ system_NN1 and_CC placed_VVN politics_NN1 in_II the_AT streets_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Prior_II21 to_II22 the_AT republican_JJ government_NN1 reforms_VVZ political_JJ and_CC social_JJ power_NN1 in_II Spain_NP1 lay_VVD in_II the_AT hands_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 powerful_JJ minority_NN1 of_IO the_AT church_NN1 ,_, army_NN1 ,_, and_CC landowners_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Their_APPGE massive_JJ landownership_NN1 ,_, the_AT Lactifundio_NP1 system_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT army_NN1 's_GE role_NN1 in_II politics_NN1 enabled_VVD them_PPHO2 to_TO keep_VVI their_APPGE power_NN1 over_II a_AT1 majority_NN1 (_( 70%_NNU of_IO the_AT Spanish_JJ population_NN1 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT republic_NN1 failed_VVD to_TO build_VVI on_II the_AT potential_JJ support_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 majority_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 failure_NN1 was_VBDZ largely_RR due_II21 to_II22 the_AT doctrinaire_JJ approach_NN1 to_TO reform_VVI which_DDQ other_II21 than_II22 striving_VVG to_TO establish_VVI the_AT democratic_JJ consensus_NN1 ,_, also_RR sought_VVN to_TO pay_VVI off_RP old_JJ scores_NN2 against_II the_AT conservative_JJ right_NN1 and_CC build_VV0 a_AT1 sectarian_JJ leftist_NN1 regime_NN1 ,_, isolating_VVG moderate_JJ support_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II 1931-33_MCMC the_AT main_JJ aims_NN2 of_IO the_AT republican_JJ reforms_NN2 were_VBDR a_ZZ1 )_) reform_NN1 and_CC reduction_NN1 of_IO the_AT army_NN1 ,_, b_ZZ1 )_) separation_NN1 of_IO church_NN1 and_CC state_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 restriction_NN1 on_II Catholic_JJ rights_NN2 and_CC privileges_NN2 ,_, c_ZZ1 )_) reform_NN1 of_IO the_AT unitary_JJ structure_NN1 of_IO the_AT Spanish_JJ state_NN1 to_TO permit_VVI Catalan_JJ regional_JJ autonomy_NN1 ,_, and_CC d_ZZ1 )_) broad_JJ social_JJ and_CC economic_JJ reforms_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 reforms_NN2 ,_, although_CS essentially_RR moderate_JJ in_II their_APPGE nature_NN1 ,_, challenged_VVD the_AT traditional_JJ power_NN1 of_IO the_AT right-wing_JJ oligarchies_NN2 with_IW underlying_JJ social_JJ and_CC political_JJ implications_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT return_NN1 of_IO the_AT army_NN1 was_VBDZ carried_VVN out_RP by_II the_AT new_JJ defence_NN1 minister_NN1 Manuel_NP1 Azana_NP1 &mdash;_- ;_; he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ determined_VVN to_TO break_VVI the_AT political_JJ autonomy_NN1 of_IO the_AT army_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT officer_NN1 corps_NN was_VBDZ reduced_VVN by_II 50%_NNU ,_, with_IW many_DA2 officers_NN2 retiring_VVG on_II full_JJ pay_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT overall_JJ size_NN1 of_IO the_AT army_NN1 was_VBDZ also_RR cut_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 aroused_VVD the_AT permanent_JJ hostility_NN1 of_IO many_DA2 officers_NN2 and_CC actually_RR strengthened_VVD the_AT power_NN1 of_IO right_JJ wing_NN1 officers_NN2 in_II the_AT army_NN1 as_CSA republican_JJ officers_NN2 stifled_VVN by_II the_AT hierarchical_JJ atmosphere_NN1 were_VBDR glad_JJ to_TO go_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT hostility_NN1 of_IO the_AT army_NN1 to_II the_AT republic_NN1 increased_VVN with_IW the_AT Catalan_JJ autonomy_NN1 statute_NN1 which_DDQ represented_VVD to_II them_PPHO2 the_AT breaking_VVG up_RP of_IO the_AT Spanish_JJ nation_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 threat_NN1 to_II national_JJ pride_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT anticlerical_JJ religious_JJ settlement_NN1 was_VBDZ perhaps_RR the_AT most_RGT emotive_JJ and_CC damaging_JJ reform_NN1 of_IO the_AT republican_JJ government_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
By_II cutting_VVG the_AT state_NN1 salaries_NN2 of_IO clergy_NN2 and_CC ending_VVG religious_JJ domination_NN1 of_IO education_NN1 ,_, the_AT republican_JJ government_NN1 pushed_VVN into_II opposition_NN1 the_AT near_JJ 25%_NNU of_IO the_AT Spanish_JJ population_NN1 who_PNQS were_VBDR Catholics_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 was_VBDZ an_AT1 important_JJ loss_NN1 of_IO potential_JJ moderate_JJ middle_JJ class_NN1 support_NN1 ,_, who_PNQS moved_VVD to_II the_AT right_JJ wing_NN1 in_II opposition_NN1 to_II the_AT republic_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 split_NN1 made_VVD it_PPH1 impossible_JJ to_TO unite_VVI a_AT1 broad_JJ democratic_JJ majority_NN1 and_CC left_VVD the_AT republic_NN1 divided_VVD almost_RR from_II the_AT start_NN1 of_IO the_AT regime_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT fourth_MD goal_NN1 of_IO the_AT republic_NN1 was_VBDZ social_JJ reform_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; primarily_RR agrarian_JJ reform_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Legislation_NN1 was_VBDZ introduced_VVN to_TO expropriate_VVI land_NN1 from_II absentee_NN1 landlords_NN2 and_CC redistribute_VVI it_PPH1 to_II peasants_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Compensation_NN1 was_VBDZ given_VVN for_IF the_AT land_NN1 taken_VVN ,_, but_CCB this_DD1 limited_VVD the_AT programme_NN1 as_CSA only_RR 1%_NNU of_IO the_AT republican_JJ budget_NN1 was_VBDZ allocated_VVN towards_II this_DD1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT main_JJ weakness_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 republican_JJ reforms_NN2 was_VBDZ that_CST they_PPHS2 threatened_VVD fundamental_JJ change_NN1 but_CCB did_VDD n't_XX fully_RR implement_VVI it_PPH1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
While_CS the_AT right_NN1 's_GE fears_NN2 about_II a_AT1 red_JJ revolution_NN1 developed_VVD ,_, the_AT left_NN1 became_VVD frustrated_JJ and_CC disillusioned_VVN by_II the_AT moderate_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 reforms_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT republican_JJ group_NN1 regarded_VVN the_AT extreme_JJ left_JJ as_CSA great_JJ a_AT1 threat_NN1 as_II the_AT right_NN1 and_CC was_VBDZ brutal_JJ in_II its_APPGE suppression_NN1 of_IO C.N.T_NP1 and_CC U.G.T_NP1 strikes_VVZ ._. 
</s>
<s>
By_II regarding_VVG the_AT strikes_NN2 as_II a_AT1 definite_JJ act_NN1 of_IO political_JJ attack_NN1 on_II the_AT regime_NN1 ,_, the_AT republican_JJ government_NN1 strengthened_VVD left_JJ wing_NN1 opposition_NN1 and_CC contributed_VVN to_II the_AT socialist_JJ move_NN1 left-ward_RL ._. 
</s>
<s>
Increasingly_RR ,_, the_AT socialists_NN2 declared_VVD that_CST they_PPHS2 saw_VVD the_AT republic_NN1 as_II a_AT1 Bourgeois_JJ stepping_VVG stone_NN1 in_II a_AT1 transition_NN1 to_II a_AT1 socialist_JJ regime_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II the_AT 1933_MC elections_NN2 the_AT socialists_NN2 no_RR21 longer_RR22 associated_VVN themselves_PPX2 with_IW the_AT divided_JJ fractions_NN2 of_IO the_AT middle_JJ class_NN1 republican_NN1 government_NN1 ,_, hoping_VVG to_TO rally_VVI a_AT1 broad_JJ following_NN1 independently_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Socialists_NN2 wanted_VVD to_TO dissociate_VVI themselves_PPX2 with_IW the_AT republican_JJ government_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ was_VBDZ losing_VVG its_APPGE strength_NN1 and_CC unity_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Radicals_NN2 also_RR went_VVD into_II opposition_NN1 and_CC the_AT Radical_JJ Socialists_NN2 were_VBDR split_VVN three_MC ways_NN2 ;_; left_JJ ,_, right_RR ,_, and_CC centre_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_II the_AT socialists_NN2 moved_VVD increasingly_RR left_VVN of_IO the_AT republic_NN1 ,_, splitting_VVG the_AT coalition_NN1 government_NN1 ,_, the_AT right_NN1 gained_VVD support_NN1 reorganising_VVG itself_PPX1 into_II a_AT1 united_JJ opposition_NN1 to_II the_AT republic_NN1 under_II the_AT umbrella_NN1 of_IO the_AT C.E.D.A._NP1 The_AT right_JJ wing_NN1 capitalised_VVN on_II the_AT Catholic_JJ reaction_NN1 against_II republican_JJ anticlericalism_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO gain_VVI power_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Their_APPGE goal_NN1 of_IO restoring_VVG the_AT power_NN1 of_IO the_AT Church_NN1 hid_VVD their_APPGE aim_NN1 of_IO overthrowing_VVG the_AT republic_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT 1933_MC elections_NN2 demonstrated_VVD the_AT growing_JJ right_JJ wing_NN1 reaction_NN1 against_II left_JJ wing_NN1 republican_NN1 parties_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT republican_JJ government_NN1 was_VBDZ unable_JK to_TO maintain_VVI a_AT1 broad_JJ middle_JJ class_NN1 moderate_JJ consensus_NN1 as_II the_AT C.E.D.A._NP1 became_VVD the_AT most_RGT powerful_JJ party_NN1 in_II the_AT Cortes_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 signalled_VVD a_AT1 new_JJ wave_NN1 of_IO reform_NN1 and_CC counter-reform_NN1 as_II the_AT right-wing_JJ Radical_JJ government_NN1 strove_VVD to_TO halt_VVI the_AT reforms_NN2 of_IO the_AT republic_NN1 and_CC introduce_VV0 conservative_JJ policies_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II doing_VDG this_DD1 ,_, the_AT government_NN1 effectively_RR started_VVD to_TO destroy_VVI the_AT republic_NN1 from_II within_RL ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_II the_AT republican_JJ system_NN1 began_VVD to_TO be_VBI associated_VVN with_IW right-wing_JJ policies_NN2 ,_, the_AT left_NN1 was_VBDZ pushed_VVN to_II greater_JJR political_JJ extremism_NN1 as_CSA it_PPH1 was_VBDZ very_RG difficult_JJ for_IF them_PPHO2 to_TO effect_VVI political_JJ change_NN1 within_II the_AT Cortes_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Strikes_NN2 grew_VVD more_RGR frequent_JJ and_CC violent_JJ ,_, the_AT harsh_JJ suppression_NN1 of_IO them_PPHO2 by_II the_AT government_NN1 increasing_JJ hostility_NN1 towards_II the_AT republican_JJ regime_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 became_VVD a_AT1 signal_NN1 for_IF revolutionary_JJ insurrection_NN1 in_II Catalonia_NP1 and_CC Asturia_NP1 by_II the_AT C.N.T.-F.A.I_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 insurrection_NN1 was_VBDZ eventually_RR undermined_VVN by_II the_AT government_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
After_II seeing_VVG its_APPGE power_NN1 threatened_VVN in_II this_DD1 way_NN1 ,_, government_NN1 policy_NN1 became_VVD increasingly_RR reactionary_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 made_VVD closer_JJR links_NN2 to_II the_AT army_NN1 and_CC the_AT semi-fascist_JJ Falange_NN1 movement_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT republican_JJ state_NN1 was_VBDZ undermined_VVN by_II the_AT right_JJ wing_NN1 counter_NN1 reforms_NN2 which_DDQ eased_VVD the_AT road_NN1 to_II violence_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Left_JJ wing_NN1 hostility_NN1 to_II the_AT republic_NN1 unified_VVD its_APPGE various_JJ factions_NN2 into_II a_AT1 new_JJ &bquo;_" Popular_JJ Front_NN1 &equo;_" in_II 1936_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT reactionary_JJ politics_NN1 of_IO the_AT government_NN1 made_VVD sure_JJ that_CST two_MC mistakes_NN2 of_IO 1933_MC ,_, left_JJ wing_NN1 division_NN1 and_CC the_AT aloofness_NN1 of_IO the_AT C.N.T._NP1 to_II the_AT parliamentary_JJ system_NN1 ,_, were_VBDR not_XX repeated_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II February_NPM1 1936_MC the_AT Popular_JJ Front_NN1 won_VVD the_AT elections_NN2 by_II sender_NN1 majority_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Popular_JJ Front_JJ government_NN1 found_VVD it_PPH1 more_RRR and_CC more_RGR difficult_JJ to_TO maintain_VVI its_APPGE legitimacy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Politics_NN1 was_VBDZ increasingly_RR moving_VVG outside_II the_AT legal_JJ boundaries_NN2 of_IO the_AT Cortes_NP1 into_II street_NN1 violence_NN1 and_CC C.N.T._NP1 revolutionary_JJ committees_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 committees_NN2 were_VBDR spreading_VVG throughout_II Spain_NP1 on_II a_AT1 local_JJ and_CC provincial_JJ level_NN1 ,_, weakening_VVG republican_JJ power_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT socialist_JJ government_NN1 feared_VVD a_AT1 loss_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 to_II the_AT C.N.T._NP1 unless_CS they_PPHS2 held_VVD out_RP a_AT1 revolutionary_JJ future_NN1 to_II the_AT social_JJ masses_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Though_CS the_AT right_JJ wing_NN1 had_VHD lost_VVN much_DA1 of_IO its_APPGE political_JJ leverage_NN1 in_II the_AT Cortes_NP1 ,_, their_APPGE opposition_NN1 found_VVD voice_NN1 in_II growing_JJ street_NN1 violence_NN1 and_CC eventually_RR a_AT1 military_JJ uprising_NN1 which_DDQ was_VBDZ to_TO start_VVI the_AT civil_JJ war_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT outcome_NN1 of_IO the_AT civil_JJ war_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 victory_NN1 for_IF the_AT right_JJ wing_NN1 forces_NN2 and_CC the_AT establishment_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 military_JJ regime_NN1 under_II Franco_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT state_NN1 of_IO the_AT political_JJ parties_NN2 was_VBDZ reflected_VVN in_II the_AT civil_JJ war_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT right_JJ wing_NN1 put_VVN forward_RL a_AT1 united_JJ front_NN1 with_IW the_AT clear_JJ aim_NN1 of_IO overthrowing_VVG the_AT republic_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT left_NN1 was_VBDZ divided_VVN and_CC split_VVN about_II tactics_NN2 and_CC what_DDQ the_AT war_NN1 should_VM achieve_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 fought_VVD within_II themselves_PPX2 ,_, weakening_VVG their_APPGE fight_NN1 for_IF the_AT republic_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT right_JJ wing_NN1 was_VBDZ also_RR helped_VVN by_II international_JJ support_NN1 from_II Italy_NP1 and_CC Germany_NP1 while_CS the_AT republican_JJ side_NN1 received_VVD only_RR limited_JJ aid_NN1 from_II the_AT U.S.S.R._NP1 Both_RR the_AT reforms_NN2 and_CC the_AT weaknesses_NN2 of_IO the_AT republican_JJ governments_NN2 contributed_VVN to_II the_AT outbreak_NN1 and_CC outcome_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 Spanish_JJ civil_JJ war_NN1 ;_; that_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT reassertion_NN1 of_IO conservative_JJ military_JJ rule_NN1 in_II Spain_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT army_NN1 had_VHD traditionally_RR been_VBN the_AT guiding_JJ force_NN1 in_II Spanish_JJ politics_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT republic_NN1 failed_VVD to_TO curb_VVI its_APPGE powers_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT reforms_NN2 of_IO the_AT army_NN1 consolidated_VVN the_AT right_JJ wing_NN1 within_II the_AT army_NN1 and_CC increased_VVD its_APPGE hostility_NN1 to_II the_AT republic_NN1 rather_CS21 than_CS22 limit_VVI its_APPGE powers_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT weaknesses_NN2 of_IO the_AT republic_NN1 represented_VVD the_AT weaknesses_NN2 of_IO Spanish_JJ society_NN1 ,_, principally_RR the_AT massive_JJ divide_NN1 between_II the_AT powerful_JJ conservative_JJ minority_NN1 and_CC the_AT majority_NN1 of_IO landless_JJ labourers_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 was_VBDZ reflected_VVN in_II a_AT1 polarised_JJ and_CC divided_JJ political_JJ system_NN1 ,_, in_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 was_VBDZ almost_RR impossible_JJ to_TO build_VVI a_AT1 common_JJ democratic_JJ consensus_NN1 especially_RR as_RG many_DA2 of_IO the_AT moderate_JJ middle_JJ classes_NN2 were_VBDR pushed_VVN into_II right_JJ wing_NN1 opposition_NN1 of_IO the_AT republic_NN1 by_II the_AT initial_JJ government_NN1 's_GE anticlericalism_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT reforms_NN2 made_VVD the_AT splits_NN2 already_RR present_JJ within_II the_AT republican_JJ governments_NN2 yet_RR more_RRR defined_VVN and_CC were_VBDR used_VVN as_CSA tools_NN2 to_TO benefit_VVI the_AT ruling_JJ regime_NN1 ,_, rather_CS21 than_CS22 build_VVI a_AT1 broad_JJ democratic_JJ consensus_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR politics_NN1 became_VVD widely_RR split_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Unable_JK to_TO resolve_VVI the_AT conflicts_NN2 within_II the_AT legal_JJ political_JJ arena_NN1 they_PPHS2 were_VBDR pushed_VVN to_II violence_NN1 and_CC war_NN1 ,_, with_IW the_AT united_JJ right-wing_JJ army_NN1 regaining_VVG its_APPGE traditional_JJ power_NN1 over_II Spanish_JJ politics_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
UNIVERSITY_NN1 OF_IO EDINBURGH_NP1 ,_, DEPARTMENT_NN1 OF_IO POLITICS_NN1 Does_VDZ Money_NN1 Corrupt_JJ the_AT Electoral_JJ Process_NN1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ?_? 
</s>
<s>
KIERAN_NP1 LEE_NP1 TUTORS_NN2 NAME_VV0 :_: PIPPA_NP1 NORRIS_NP1 25th_MD of_IO November_NPM1 1990_MC Money_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 important_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT electoral_JJ process_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 enables_VVZ candidates_NN2 to_TO use_VVI the_AT media_NN and_CC campaign_NN1 techniques_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR now_RT an_AT1 essential_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT electoral_JJ process_NN1 in_II America_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT expenditure_NN1 involved_JJ with_IW election_NN1 campaigns_NN2 has_VHZ been_VBN rapidly_RR increasing_VVG since_II 1976_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II 1976_MC ,_, direct_JJ political_JJ expenditures_NN2 in_II the_AT congressional_JJ elections_NN2 totalled_VVD &dollar;104_NNU ,_, 346_MC ,_, 477_MC ,_, compared_VVN with_IW an_AT1 increase_NN1 by_II 359%_NNU to_II &dollar;476_NNU ,_, 804_MC ,_, 432_MC in_II 1986_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 has_VHZ given_VVN rise_NN1 to_II fears_NN2 that_CST the_AT electoral_JJ process_NN1 in_II the_AT US_NP1 has_VHZ become_VVN corrupted_VVD ,_, as_CSA money_NN1 increasingly_RR &bquo;_" buys_VVZ &equo;_" political_JJ influence_NN1 through_II elaborate_JJ election_NN1 campaigns_NN2 that_CST concentrate_VV0 power_NN1 in_II hands_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 &bquo;_" small_JJ monied_JJ minority_NN1 &equo;_" &lsqb;_( Alexander_NP1 &rsqb;_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
Campaign_NN1 finance_NN1 is_VBZ related_VVN to_II broader_JJR aspects_NN2 of_IO the_AT American_JJ political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 are_VBR constitutional_JJ limits_NN2 on_II the_AT regulation_NN1 of_IO politics_NN1 ,_, the_AT separate_JJ elections_NN2 to_TO separate_VVI branches_NN2 of_IO government_NN1 (_( many_DA2 for_IF fixed_JJ terms_NN2 )_) ,_, the_AT role_NN1 of_IO the_AT media_NN ,_, and_CC candidate_NN1 centred_VVD campaigns_NN2 in_II a_AT1 climate_NN1 of_IO weakened_JJ political_JJ parties_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 have_VH0 all_RR contributed_VVN to_II a_AT1 growth_NN1 in_II campaign_NN1 spending_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Ironically_RR ,_, the_AT legislation_NN1 introduced_VVN to_TO reform_VVI campaign_NN1 funding_NN1 helped_VVD to_TO facilitate_VVI increased_JJ spending_NN1 in_II politics_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Reform_NN1 began_VVD with_IW the_AT Revenue_NN1 Act_NN1 of_IO 1971_MC ;_; the_AT Federal_JJ Election_NN1 Campaign_NN1 Act_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE subsequent_JJ amendments_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 set_VV0 limits_NN2 to_II the_AT level_NN1 of_IO contributions_NN2 with_IW the_AT aim_NN1 to_TO prevent_VVI candidates_NN2 from_II becoming_VVG obligated_VVD to_II special_JJ interest_NN1 groups_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
H._NP1 E._NP1 Alexander_NP1 describes_VVZ the_AT four_MC basic_JJ aspects_NN2 to_II this_DD1 legislation_NN1 as_CSA public_JJ disclosure_NN1 of_IO the_AT monetary_JJ influences_NN2 on_II elected_JJ officers_NN2 ,_, expenditure_NN1 limits_VVZ to_TO meet_VVI the_AT problem_NN1 of_IO rising_VVG costs_NN2 ,_, contribution_NN1 restrictions_NN2 to_TO meet_VVI the_AT problem_NN1 of_IO candidates_NN2 obligating_VVG themselves_PPX2 to_II certain_JJ interest_NN1 groups_NN2 ,_, and_CC public_JJ funding_NN1 which_DDQ aimed_VVD to_TO provide_VVI an_AT1 alternative_JJ source_NN1 of_IO funding_NN1 to_TO replace_VVI the_AT prohibited_JJ and_CC limited_JJ contributions_NN2 under_II FECA_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 reforms_NN2 affected_VVN the_AT manner_NN1 in_II which_DDQ money_NN1 was_VBDZ involved_JJ in_II campaign_NN1 funding_NN1 with_IW wide-ranging_JJ implications_NN2 on_II the_AT US_NP1 electoral_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT primary_JJ sources_NN2 of_IO campaign_NN1 funding_NN1 are_VBR Political_JJ Action_NN1 Committees_NN2 (_( PACs_NP2 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_ZZ1 PAC_NP1 is_VBZ a_AT1 group_NN1 representing_VVG some_DD interest_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 labour_NN1 or_CC more_RGR specifically_RR abortion_NN1 or_CC gun_NN1 control_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX is_VBZ great_JJ diversity_NN1 and_CC variety_NN1 among_II PACs_NP2 as_CSA they_PPHS2 represent_VV0 different_JJ values_NN2 and_CC beliefs_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Federal_JJ Election_NN1 Campaign_NN1 Act_NN1 ,_, its_APPGE amendments_NN2 of_IO 1976_MC ,_, and_CC the_AT Buckley-Valeo_NP1 ruling_NN1 of_IO the_AT supreme_JJ court_NN1 ,_, also_RR in_II 1976_MC ,_, made_VVD it_PPH1 easier_JJR to_TO establish_VVI PACs_NP2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
No_AT limit_NN1 was_VBDZ imposed_VVN upon_II the_AT spending_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 PAC_NP1 on_II31 behalf_II32 of_II33 a_AT1 candidate_NN1 as_CS31 long_CS32 as_CS33 its_APPGE activities_NN2 were_VBDR not_XX coordinated_VVN with_IW the_AT candidate_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Buckley-Valeo_NP1 ruling_NN1 supported_VVD the_AT rise_NN1 in_II campaign_NN1 spending_NN1 as_CSA it_PPH1 declared_VVD it_PPH1 unconstitutional_JJ to_TO limit_VVI the_AT personal_JJ contributions_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 candidate_NN1 for_IF their_APPGE own_DA campaign_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_II PACs_NP2 have_VH0 become_VVN the_AT major_JJ source_NN1 of_IO campaign_NN1 funds_NN2 ,_, inability_NN1 to_TO win_VVI PAC_NP1 support_NN1 may_VM mean_VVI a_AT1 candidate_NN1 can_VM not_XX mount_VVI an_AT1 adequate_JJ campaign_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT rise_NN1 of_IO PAC_NP1 powers_NN2 has_VHZ three_MC main_JJ effects_NN2 ;_; the_AT nationalisation_NN1 of_IO resources_NN2 ,_, the_AT purchase_NN1 of_IO access_NN1 and_CC influence_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT distortion_NN1 of_IO partisan_JJ balance_NN1 and_CC electoral_JJ competition_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Political_JJ funding_NN1 through_II PACs_NP2 is_VBZ creating_VVG a_AT1 centralised_JJ system_NN1 that_CST puts_VVZ the_AT loyalty_NN1 of_IO candidates_NN2 to_II the_AT national_JJ source_NN1 of_IO funding_NN1 above_II that_DD1 to_II their_APPGE local_JJ constituency_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Politics_NN1 is_VBZ moving_VVG out_II21 of_II22 political_JJ constituencies_NN2 to_TO &bquo;_" resource_VVI &equo;_" constituencies_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT fact_NN1 that_CST PACs_NP2 tend_VV0 to_TO support_VVI incumbents_NN2 as_CSA safe_JJ options_NN2 for_IF re-election_NN1 has_VHZ implications_NN2 for_IF democracy_NN1 in_II America_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Party_NN1 loyalty_NN1 has_VHZ weakened_VVN in_II31 favour_II32 of_II33 PAC_NP1 support_NN1 in_II the_AT the_AT choice_NN1 of_IO candidate_NN1 and_CC who_PNQS can_VM run_VVI for_IF office_NN1 is_VBZ limited_VVN by_II the_AT need_NN1 for_IF PAC_NP1 support_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ mainly_RR given_VVN to_II incumbents_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR a_AT1 political_JJ elite_NN1 with_IW PAC_NP1 backing_NN1 is_VBZ created_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
David_NP1 Broder_NP1 argues_VVZ PACs_NP2 are_VBR a_AT1 threat_NN1 to_II the_AT democratic_JJ ideal_JJ leading_JJ to_II gutless_JJ government_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ avoids_VVZ taking_VVG controversial_JJ stances_NN2 for_II31 fear_II32 of_II33 losing_VVG PAC_NP1 support_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 changes_NN2 can_VM not_XX be_VBI seen_VVN in_II isolation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT growing_JJ power_NN1 of_IO campaign_NN1 funding_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE effects_NN2 are_VBR also_RR related_VVN to_II changes_NN2 in_II the_AT American_JJ political_JJ and_CC social_JJ system_NN1 which_DDQ help_VV0 to_TO facilitate_VVI these_DD2 effects_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_CSA Sorauf_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP ,_, &bquo;_" political_JJ money_NN1 reflects_VVZ the_AT configuration_NN1 of_IO influence_NN1 on_II American_JJ politics_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Changes_NN2 in_II American_JJ electoral_JJ politics_NN1 ,_, the_AT role_NN1 of_IO the_AT mass_JJ media/campaign_FU technology_NN1 ,_, patterns_NN2 of_IO voting_NN1 behaviour_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT candidate_NN1 focus_NN1 of_IO the_AT campaign_NN1 all_DB are_VBR interrelated_JJ and_CC contributive_JJ to_II the_AT way_NN1 money_NN1 is_VBZ used_VVN in_II political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Sorauf_NN1 argues_VVZ that_CST fundamental_JJ changes_NN2 in_II American_JJ society_NN1 and_CC politics_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 money_NN1 made_VVD candidates_NN2 and_CC interest_NN1 groups_NN2 chief_JJ actors_NN2 in_II the_AT campaign_NN1 finance_NN1 they_PPHS2 own_VV0 turned_VVN to_II money_NN1 as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE enhanced_JJ power_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
We_PPIS2 can_VM see_VVI how_RRQ money_NN1 is_VBZ important_JJ in_II the_AT American_JJ political_JJ system_NN1 as_CSA funding_NN1 is_VBZ vital_JJ to_TO fight_VVI a_AT1 campaign_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Money_NN1 can_VM corrupt_JJ the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 through_II the_AT power_NN1 of_IO PACs_NP2 and_CC the_AT use_NN1 of_IO independent_JJ expenditure_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 prevents_VVZ competition_NN1 by_II helping_VVG to_TO ensure_VVI the_AT power_NN1 of_IO the_AT incumbent_NN1 and_CC increasingly_RR wealthy_JJ individuals_NN2 are_VBR able_JK to_TO launch_VVI their_APPGE own_DA campaigns_NN2 from_II personal_JJ funds_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ especially_RR true_JJ in_II Senate_NN1 and_CC House_NN1 elections_NN2 which_DDQ receive_VV0 no_AT public_JJ funding_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Dahl_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP that_CST a_AT1 person_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 low_JJ income_NN1 faces_VVZ greater_JJR difficulty_NN1 in_II fighting_VVG a_AT1 campaign_NN1 than_CSN a_AT1 wealthy_JJ person_NN1 but_CCB that_DD1 money_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX the_AT only_JJ factor_NN1 when_CS it_PPH1 comes_VVZ to_II winning_VVG an_AT1 election_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT predisposition_NN1 of_IO the_AT voters_NN2 ,_, issues_NN2 of_IO the_AT moment_NN1 ,_, advantages_NN2 of_IO incumbency_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT support_NN1 of_IO various_JJ groups_NN2 are_VBR all_DB related_VVN to_II the_AT final_JJ vote_NN1 and_CC often_RR more_RGR important_JJ than_CSN money_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Money_NN1 as_II an_AT1 &bquo;_" independent_JJ base_NN1 &equo;_" can_VM not_XX win_VVI elections_NN2 although_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ vital_JJ in_II launching_VVG a_AT1 successful_JJ campaign_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_IF ,_, as_CSA Loomis_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP ,_, even_CS21 though_CS22 Republicans_NN2 received_VVD more_DAR funding_NN1 than_CSN Democrats_NN2 between_II 1930_MC and_CC 1970_MC the_AT Democrats_NN2 were_VBDR able_JK to_TO hold_VVI power_NN1 in_II the_AT Senate_NN1 and_CC House_NN1 of_IO Representatives_NN2 more_RGR often_RR than_CSN the_AT Republicans_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR we_PPIS2 can_VM see_VVI there_RL are_VBR structural_JJ limits_NN2 to_II the_AT power_NN1 of_IO money_NN1 to_TO win_VVI elections_NN2 though_CS money_NN1 is_VBZ vital_JJ to_TO purchase_VVI the_AT resources_NN2 necessary_JJ for_IF a_AT1 successful_JJ campaign_NN1 ,_, e.g._REX media_NN ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX are_VBR growing_JJ doubts_NN2 about_II the_AT ability_NN1 of_IO money_NN1 to_TO win_VVI election_NN1 campaigns_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Too_RG much_DA1 spending_NN1 by_II a_AT1 candidate_NN1 can_VM in_II fact_NN1 cause_VV0 a_AT1 backlash_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 happened_VVD in_II Iowa_NP1 ,_, Ohio_NP1 ,_, and_CC Vermont_NP1 during_II the_AT 1986_MC elections_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT candidate_NN1 can_VM become_VVI too_RG closely_RR related_VVN to_II the_AT PAC_NP1 money_NN1 and_CC thereby_RR become_VV0 alienated_VVN from_II local_JJ politics_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Alexander_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP there_RL is_VBZ little_RR scientific_JJ evidence_NN1 about_II the_AT incremental_JJ value_NN1 of_IO various_JJ levels_NN2 of_IO campaign_NN1 spending_NN1 or_CC the_AT effectiveness_NN1 of_IO different_JJ campaign_NN1 techniques_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Campaign_NN1 funding_NN1 is_VBZ most_RGT effective_JJ in_II marginal_JJ elections_NN2 and_CC pre-nomination_JJ campaigns_NN2 where_CS there_EX is_VBZ evidence_NN1 that_CST the_AT wealthy_JJ have_VH0 a_AT1 head-start_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Sorauf_NN1 points_VVZ out_RP that_DD1 public_NN1 opinion_NN1 has_VHZ become_VVN increasingly_RR sceptical_JJ about_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO money_NN1 in_II campaign_NN1 politics_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI wary_JJ of_IO public_JJ funding_NN1 ,_, but_CCB accept_VV0 limits_NN2 on_II contributions_NN2 and_CC expenditure_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT rapid_JJ development_NN1 of_IO PACs_NP2 started_VVD to_TO get_VVI an_AT1 increased_JJ level_NN1 of_IO press_NN1 coverage_NN1 in_II the_AT 1982_MC elections_NN2 and_CC there_EX were_VBDR growing_JJ calls_NN2 for_IF reform_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT main_JJ themes_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 reform_NN1 were_VBDR to_TO reduce_VVI the_AT power_NN1 of_IO PACs_NP2 ,_, which_DDQ were_VBDR using_VVG election_NN1 money_NN1 to_TO attain_VVI legislative_JJ influence_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT reformers_NN2 believe_VV0 these_DD2 problems_NN2 could_VM be_VBI solved_VVN through_II reform_NN1 of_IO campaign_NN1 finance_NN1 laws_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Sorauf_NN1 identified_VVN nine_MC main_JJ aims_NN2 of_IO the_AT reforms_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 were_VBDR to_TO ensure_VVI accountability_NN1 ,_, limit_VV0 influence_NN1 of_IO contributors_NN2 ,_, provoke_VV0 competitiveness_NN1 ,_, support_VV0 the_AT two_MC party_NN1 system_NN1 ,_, encourage_VV0 a_AT1 broad_JJ base_NN1 of_IO contributions_NN2 ,_, control_VV0 the_AT burdens_NN2 of_IO fund-raising_NN1 ,_, ensure_VV0 campaign_NN1 communication_NN1 ,_, and_CC to_TO protect_VVI political_JJ freedom_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT major_JJ legislative_JJ alternatives_NN2 for_IF reform_NN1 were_VBDR included_VVN in_II four_MC bills_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Synar_JJ bill_NN1 tried_VVD to_TO limit_VVI PACs_NP2 directly_RR and_CC replace_VVI some_DD of_IO the_AT money_NN1 lost_VVN through_II campaigns_NN2 by_II increasing_VVG the_AT contribution_NN1 limit_NN1 for_IF individuals_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Obey_VV0 bill_NN1 also_RR aimed_VVN to_TO directly_RR limit_VVI PACs_NP2 and_CC to_TO create_VVI public_JJ finance_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO replace_VVI lost_JJ money_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ hoped_VVN that_CST this_DD1 would_VM reduce_VVI independent_JJ expenditure_NN1 and_CC thus_RR overall_JJ spending_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT McHugh_NP1 and_CC Conable_JJ bill_NN1 left_VVD PAC_NP1 and_CC candidate_NN1 spending_VVG untouched_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 tried_VVD to_TO decrease_VVI independent_JJ expenditures_NN2 of_IO PACs_NP2 by_II repealing_VVG existing_JJ tax_NN1 credit_NN1 ,_, thus_RR making_VVG it_PPH1 more_RGR efficient_JJ to_TO look_VVI for_IF small_JJ individual_JJ contributions_NN2 and_CC thereby_RR reduce_VV0 the_AT power_NN1 of_IO the_AT PACs_NP2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Frenzel_NP1 and_CC Laxolt_NP1 bill_NN1 proposed_VVD to_TO reduce_VVI the_AT power_NN1 of_IO PACs_NP2 by_II increasing_VVG the_AT role_NN1 of_IO political_JJ parties_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Little_DA1 legislation_NN1 was_VBDZ actually_RR passed_VVN ,_, being_VBG successfully_RR fought_VVN back_RP with_IW arguments_NN2 that_CST reducing_VVG PAC_NP1 power_NN1 would_VM only_RR increase_VVI power_NN1 in_II other_JJ areas_NN2 of_IO campaign_NN1 spending_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, two_MC changes_NN2 to_II FECA_NP1 were_VBDR introduced_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Firstly_RR ,_, in_II 1986_MC there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 reform_NN1 of_IO Federal_JJ Insurance_NN1 tax_NN1 ;_; congress_NN1 dropped_VVD tax_NN1 credit_NN1 for_IF individual_JJ contributions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT second_MD change_NN1 was_VBDZ the_AT rise_NN1 in_II inflation_NN1 which_DDQ reduced_VVD the_AT statutory_JJ limits_NN2 on_II contributions_NN2 by_II more_DAR than_CSN half_DB ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_ZZ1 &dollar;5000_NNU individual_JJ contribution_NN1 in_II 1974_MC was_VBDZ worth_II &dollar;2252_NNU 1974_MC dollars_NNU2 twelve_MC years_NNT2 later_RRR ._. 
</s>
<s>
Increasingly_RR it_PPH1 seems_VVZ that_CST the_AT partial_JJ triumphs_NN2 of_IO the_AT Federal_JJ Campaign_NN1 Act_NN1 are_VBR slipping_VVG away_RL as_CSA individual_JJ contributions_NN2 are_VBR getting_VVG larger_JJR and_CC more_RGR frequently_RR come_VV0 from_II outside_JJ constituencies_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 essay_NN1 has_VHZ tried_VVN to_TO show_VVI that_DD1 money_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 important_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT American_JJ political_JJ system_NN1 and_CC that_CST its_APPGE importance_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN increasing_VVG ._. 
</s>
<s>
Money_NN1 can_VM cause_VVI &bquo;_" corruption_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_CSA evidence_NN1 has_VHZ shown_VVN ,_, wealthy_JJ candidates_NN2 receive_VV0 a_AT1 head-start_NN1 in_II pre-nomination_JJ campaigns_NN2 and_CC in_II marginal_JJ congressional_JJ seats_NN2 as_CSA they_PPHS2 are_VBR able_JK to_TO help_VVI finance_VVI their_APPGE own_DA campaigns_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Incumbents_NN2 with_IW PAC_NP1 support_NN1 can_VM ensure_VVI their_APPGE power_NN1 and_CC keep_VVI out_RP competition_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT power_NN1 of_IO money_NN1 is_VBZ changing_VVG ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 reflects_VVZ structural_JJ changes_NN2 in_II the_AT American_JJ political_JJ system_NN1 and_CC changes_NN2 in_II society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Interest_NN1 groups_NN2 have_VH0 become_VVN increasingly_RR important_JJ to_II the_AT electoral_JJ process_NN1 ,_, changing_VVG the_AT role_NN1 of_IO campaign_NN1 financing_VVG through_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO PACs_NP2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
PACs_NP2 have_VH0 helped_VVN to_TO create_VVI a_AT1 political_JJ elite_NN1 of_IO incumbents_NN2 ,_, whose_DDQGE power_NN1 is_VBZ secure_JJ with_IW PAC_NP1 backing_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, money_NN1 itself_PPX1 does_VDZ not_XX win_VVI elections_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Campaign_NN1 financing_NN1 is_VBZ encouraged_VVN and_CC yet_RR limited_VVN through_II structural_JJ features_NN2 of_IO the_AT American_JJ political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
UNIVERSITY_NN1 OF_IO EDINBURGH_NP1 ,_, DEPARTMENT_NN1 OF_IO HISTORY_NN1 POLITICAL_JJ POWER_NN1 IN_II THE_AT SHAPING_NN1 OF_IO SOCIETY_NN1 IN_II EUROPE_NP1 ,_, 1870-1940_MCMC ESSAY_NN1 7_MC &mdash;_- ;_; &bquo;_" Their_APPGE motives_NN2 for_IF social_JJ reform_NN1 were_VBDR far_RG21 from_RG22 benevolent_JJ ,_, but_CCB in_II practice_NN1 they_PPHS2 created_VVD embryonic_JJ welfare_NN1 states_NN2 ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
Discuss_VV0 this_DD1 view_NN1 of_IO social_JJ policy_NN1 in_II Mussolini_NP1 's_GE Italy_NP1 and_CC Hitler_NP1 's_GE Germany_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
KIERAN_NP1 LEE_NP1 TUTORS_NN2 NAME_VV0 :_: Jill_NP1 Stephenson_NP1 2nd_MD of_IO February_NPM1 1991_MC In_II Mussolini_NP1 's_GE Italy_NP1 and_CC Hitler_NP1 's_GE Germany_NP1 ,_, social_JJ reform_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 keystone_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE policies_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Mussolini_NP1 and_CC Hitler_NP1 concentrated_VVD power_NN1 to_TO create_VVI highly_RR centralised_JJ systems_NN2 with_IW social_JJ policies_NN2 aimed_VVD to_TO create_VVI a_AT1 disciplined_JJ mass_NN1 following_VVG ._. 
</s>
<s>
Hitler_NP1 and_CC Mussolini_NP1 manipulated_VVD social_JJ policy_NN1 to_TO maintain_VVI their_APPGE power_NN1 ,_, using_VVG social_JJ reform_NN1 as_II a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO controlling_VVG society_NN1 and_CC creating_VVG a_AT1 totalitarian_JJ basis_NN1 of_IO support_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 process_NN1 was_VBDZ more_RGR thorough_JJ and_CC effective_JJ in_II Nazi_JJ Germany_NP1 than_CSN Fascist_JJ Italy_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, in_II both_DB2 regimes_NN2 there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 difference_NN1 in_II what_DDQ they_PPHS2 aimed_VVD to_TO do_VDI and_CC what_DDQ they_PPHS2 actually_RR achieved_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT aims_NN2 and_CC motives_NN2 of_IO Mussolini_NP1 's_GE and_CC Hitler_NP1 's_GE social_JJ policy_NN1 were_VBDR primarily_RR political_JJ and_CC economic_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Social_JJ reform_NN1 was_VBDZ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT policy_NN1 of_IO creating_VVG a_AT1 totalitarian_JJ system_NN1 through_II Gleichschaltung_NP1 or_CC &bquo;_" coordination_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
That_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT coordination_NN1 of_IO synchronisation_NN1 of_IO society_NN1 and_CC all_DB institutions_NN2 in_II society_NN1 to_II the_AT Fascist_JJ or_CC Nazi_JJ state_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 meant_VVD the_AT subordination_NN1 of_IO all_DB individuals_NN2 and_CC self_NN1 governing_VVG bodies_NN2 to_II the_AT Government_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT first_MD aim_NN1 of_IO Mussolini_NP1 's_GE and_CC Hitler_NP1 's_GE regimes_NN2 was_VBDZ the_AT creation_NN1 of_IO &bquo;_" National_JJ Solidarity_NN1 &equo;_" (_( Schoenbaum_NP1 ,_, page_NN1 47_MC )_) and_CC a_AT1 &bquo;_" disciplined_JJ support_NN1 of_IO the_AT masses_NN2 &equo;_" (_( De_NP1 Grazia_NP1 ,_, page_NN1 3_MC )_) to_TO consolidate_VVI their_APPGE political_JJ base_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Hitler_NP1 and_CC Mussolini_NP1 aimed_VVD to_TO transcend_VVI all_DB differences_NN2 of_IO class_NN1 and_CC society_NN1 and_CC unite_VV0 society_NN1 in_II a_AT1 &bquo;_" supra_NN1 class_NN1 &equo;_" (_( De_NP1 Grazia_NP1 )_) in_II which_DDQ national_JJ identity_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 class_NN1 or_CC occupation_NN1 determined_VVN one_PN1 's_GE place_NN1 in_II society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR we_PPIS2 can_VM see_VVI how_RGQ social_JJ reform_NN1 in_II Mussolini_NP1 's_GE Italy_NP1 and_CC Hitler_NP1 's_GE Germany_NP1 was_VBDZ part_NN1 of_IO political_JJ ,_, economic_JJ ,_, and_CC social_JJ control_NN1 of_IO all_DB individuals_NN2 and_CC institutions_NN2 in_II society_NN1 ,_, to_II the_AT Fascist_JJ and_CC Nazi_JJ cause_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Pro-natalist_NN1 policies_NN2 were_VBDR the_AT keystone_NN1 of_IO Mussolini_NP1 's_GE and_CC Hitler_NP1 's_GE social_JJ reform_NN1 program_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 policies_NN2 were_VBDR &bquo;_" expansionist_JJ in_II aim_NN1 &equo;_" (_( Borrie_NP1 )_) and_CC highly_RR developed_VVN ,_, embracing_VVG many_DA2 measures_NN2 for_IF discouraging_JJ celibacy_NN1 and_CC encouraging_JJ marriage_NN1 and_CC large_JJ families_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Both_RR Mussolini_NP1 and_CC Hitler_NP1 saw_VVD population_NN1 policy_NN1 as_CSA not_XX only_RR a_AT1 means_NN of_IO increasing_VVG the_AT population_NN1 but_CCB also_RR as_II a_AT1 means_NN of_IO social_JJ control_NN1 ,_, using_VVG both_RR repressive_JJ and_CC persuasive_JJ measures_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II his_APPGE Ascension_NP1 Day_NP1 Speech_NN1 in_II May_NPM1 1927_MC ,_, Mussolini_NP1 asserted_VVD that_CST &bquo;_" demographic_JJ power_NN1 conditioned_VVN one_PN1 political_JJ and_CC thus_RR the_AT economic_JJ and_CC moral_JJ power_NN1 of_IO nations_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II Italy_NP1 pro-natalist_NN1 policies_NN2 were_VBDR bound_VVN up_RP with_IW emigration_NN1 and_CC &bquo;_" anti-urban_JJ &equo;_" policies_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Both_DB2 emigration_NN1 and_CC internal_JJ migration_NN1 became_VVD increasingly_RR controlled_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
To_TO prevent_VVI Italians_NN2 leaving_VVG ,_, emigrating_VVG was_VBDZ made_VVN increasingly_RR difficult_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Within_II Italy_NP1 migration_NN1 was_VBDZ connected_VVN to_II the_AT aim_NN1 of_IO moving_VVG people_NN from_II the_AT cities_NN2 ,_, where_CS birth_NN1 rates_NN2 were_VBDR lower_JJR ,_, to_II the_AT newly_RR reclaimed_JJ land_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Reclaimed_JJ land_NN1 also_RR made_VVD more_DAR areas_NN2 available_JJ for_IF agriculture_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ hoped_VVN that_CST this_DD1 would_VM increase_VVI Italy_NP1 's_GE own_DA food_NN1 production_NN1 and_CC increase_VV0 Italy_NP1 's_GE economic_JJ independence_NN1 as_II part_NN1 of_IO the_AT policy_NN1 of_IO autorkay_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II Italy_NP1 repressive_JJ measures_NN2 were_VBDR prominent_JJ in_II pro-natalist_NN1 policies_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Severe_JJ penalties_NN2 were_VBDR introduced_VVN for_IF abortions_NN2 and_CC the_AT sale_NN1 of_IO contraceptive_JJ devices_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Preference_NN1 in_II employment_NN1 was_VBDZ shown_VVN towards_II fathers_NN2 of_IO large_JJ families_NN2 and_CC a_AT1 bachelor_NN1 tax_NN1 was_VBDZ imposed_VVN on_II single_JJ men_NN2 to_TO induce_VVI them_PPHO2 to_TO marry_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
More_RGR constructive_JJ measures_NN2 were_VBDR also_RR introduced_VVN to_TO help_VVI families_NN2 with_IW children_NN2 financially_RR and_CC medically_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
Marriage_NN1 loans_NN2 were_VBDR introduced_VVN ,_, grants_NN2 were_VBDR made_VVN available_JJ to_TO cover_VVI medical_JJ costs_NN2 and_CC family_NN1 allowances_NN2 increased_VVN in_II amount_NN1 and_CC coverage_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Tax_NN1 concessions_NN2 were_VBDR also_RR introduced_VVN for_IF very_RG large_JJ families_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, these_DD2 did_VDD not_XX make_VVI much_DA1 difference_NN1 as_II the_AT largest_JJT families_NN2 tended_VVD to_TO be_VBI the_AT poorest_JJT families_NN2 who_PNQS paid_VVD little_RR in_II the_AT way_NN1 of_IO direct_JJ tax_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Opera_NN1 Nazionale_FW coordinated_VVD various_JJ measures_NN2 relating_VVG to_II mother_NN1 and_CC child_NN1 welfare_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 policies_NN2 had_VHD little_DA1 effect_NN1 on_II the_AT Italian_JJ birth_NN1 rate_NN1 in_II the_AT period_NN1 1930-1932_MCMC ,_, and_CC between_II 1933_MC and_CC 1937_MC not_XX a_AT1 single_JJ department_NN1 showed_VVD a_AT1 rise_NN1 in_II fertility_NN1 (_( Glass_NP1 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II 1937_MC the_AT number_NN1 of_IO births_NN2 and_CC level_NN1 of_IO fertility_NN1 did_VDD rise_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 coincided_VVD with_IW the_AT intensification_NN1 of_IO the_AT pro-natalist_NN1 campaign_NN1 ,_, but_CCB was_VBDZ probably_RR due_II21 to_II22 the_AT soldiers_NN2 returning_VVG at_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO the_AT Abyssinian_JJ war_NN1 and_CC the_AT resultant_JJ rise_NN1 in_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO marriages_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
By_II 1939_MC ,_, the_AT downward_JJ trend_NN1 in_II the_AT Italian_JJ birth_NN1 rate_NN1 was_VBDZ again_RT apparent_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II Germany_NP1 the_AT pro-natalist_NN1 measures_NN2 introduced_VVN tended_VVD to_TO be_VBI more_RGR effective_JJ than_CSN those_DD2 introduced_VVN in_II Italy_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II his_APPGE pro-natalist_NN1 policy_NN1 it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN that_CST Hitler_NP1 was_VBDZ continuing_JJ trends_NN2 that_CST began_VVD around_RG 1918_MC when_RRQ Germany_NP1 had_VHD the_AT lowest_JJT birth_NN1 rate_NN1 in_II Europe_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II 1917_MC the_AT First_MD German_JJ Association_NN1 of_IO Large_JJ Families_NN2 was_VBDZ founded_VVN and_CC at_RR21 least_RR22 two_MC active_JJ pro-natalist_NN1 organisations_NN2 were_VBDR established_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT techniques_NN2 Hitler_NP1 used_VVD were_VBDR broadly_RR similar_JJ to_II those_DD2 used_VVN in_II Italy_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Stringent_JJ measures_NN2 were_VBDR taken_VVN to_TO prevent_VVI abortion_NN1 and_CC the_AT sale_NN1 of_IO contraceptive_JJ devices_NN2 ;_; birth_NN1 control_NN1 clinics_NN2 (_( which_DDQ were_VBDR more_RGR prevalent_JJ in_II Germany_NP1 than_CSN Italy_NP1 )_) were_VBDR closed_VVN down_RP ._. 
</s>
<s>
Marriage_NN1 and_CC pro-creation_NN1 of_IO &bquo;_" Aryan_JJ Stock_NN1 &equo;_" (_( Borrie_NP1 )_) was_VBDZ encouraged_VVN with_IW financial_JJ incentives_NN2 ,_, cheap_JJ medical_JJ care_NN1 and_CC housing_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT &bquo;_" Bureau_NN1 for_IF Explaining_VVG Population_NN1 Policies_NN2 &equo;_" was_VBDZ set_VVN up_RP to_TO popularise_VVI large_JJ families_NN2 and_CC medals_NN2 were_VBDR given_VVN to_II prolific_JJ mothers_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
From_II 1933_MC to_II 1939_MC the_AT German_JJ birth_NN1 rate_NN1 rose_VVD by_II one-third_MF from_II 14.7_MC to_II 20.3_MC per_II 1000_MC (_( Glass_NP1 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
Whether_CSW this_DD1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO the_AT improved_JJ economic_JJ conditions_NN2 on_II one_MC1 hand_NN1 or_CC the_AT introduction_NN1 of_IO pro-natalist_NN1 measures_VVZ it_PPH1 is_VBZ difficult_JJ to_TO assess_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR we_PPIS2 can_VM see_VVI how_RRQ Germany_NP1 's_GE pro-natalist_NN1 policies_NN2 had_VHD a_AT1 greater_JJR measure_NN1 of_IO success_NN1 those_DD2 in_II Italy_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Social_JJ policy_NN1 in_II Mussolini_NP1 's_GE Italy_NP1 and_CC Hitler_NP1 's_GE Germany_NP1 also_RR had_VHN broader_JJR aspects_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 related_VVD to_II attempts_NN2 to_TO control_VVI society_NN1 through_II mass_JJ organisations_NN2 and_CC attempts_NN2 to_TO bring_VVI industry_NN1 and_CC the_AT economy_NN1 within_II the_AT framework_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 Fascist_JJ ,_, Nazi_JJ state_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Policies_NN2 to_TO encourage_VVI marriage_NN1 and_CC child-birth_NN1 were_VBDR also_RR designed_VVN to_TO create_VVI a_AT1 new_JJ army_NN1 of_IO workers_NN2 and_CC soldiers_NN2 to_TO serve_VVI the_AT state_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Through_II these_DD2 policies_NN2 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ also_RR hoped_VVN to_TO pull_VVI women_NN2 out_II21 of_II22 the_AT work-place_NN1 ,_, by_II glorifying_VVG the_AT role_NN1 of_IO nurturing_NN1 ,_, family_NN1 women_NN2 to_II to_TO reduce_VVI unemployment_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Through_II the_AT population_NN1 policies_NN2 of_IO Fascist_JJ Italy_NP1 and_CC Nazi_JJ Germany_NP1 we_PPIS2 can_VM recognise_VVI broader_JJR aspects_NN2 of_IO social_JJ policy_NN1 relating_VVG to_II the_AT economy_NN1 and_CC the_AT creation_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 disciplined_JJ mass_JJ society_NN1 with_IW the_AT states_NN2 attempts_VVZ to_TO repress_VVI and_CC coerce_VVI the_AT population_NN1 at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, what_DDQ effect_VV0 these_DD2 social_JJ policies_NN2 actually_RR have_VH0 on_II the_AT population_NN1 ?_? 
</s>
<s>
Many_DA2 historians_NN2 agree_VV0 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 difference_NN1 between_II what_DDQ the_AT state_NN1 aimed_VVD to_TO achieve_VVI and_CC what_DDQ it_PPH1 actually_RR achieved_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Between_RL was_VBDZ set_VVN out_RP on_II paper_NN1 as_CSA theory_NN1 and_CC what_DDQ actually_RR happened_VVD in_II practise_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Nazi_JJ Germany_NP1 tended_VVD to_TO carry_VVI out_RP their_APPGE policies_NN2 with_IW greater_JJR thoroughness_NN1 and_CC efficiency_NN1 than_CSN Mussolini_NP1 's_GE fascist_JJ regime_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II Italy_NP1 traditional_JJ social_JJ cleavages_NN2 survived_VVD more_RGR openly_RR than_CSN in_II Germany_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Fascist_JJ attempts_NN2 to_TO create_VVI mass_JJ classless_JJ and_CC disciplined_JJ society_NN1 ,_, maintained_VVN and_CC sometimes_RT exacerbated_VVD traditional_JJ social_JJ divisions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT main_JJ differences_NN2 between_II Italian_JJ Fascism_NN1 and_CC Nazi_JJ Germany_NP1 seem_VV0 to_TO be_VBI in_II the_AT greater_JJR degree_NN1 of_IO autonomy_NN1 of_IO industry_NN1 and_CC the_AT failure_NN1 of_IO Mussolini_NP1 to_TO unite_VVI the_AT middle_JJ classes_NN2 and_CC the_AT working_JJ classes_NN2 even_RR superficially_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
Sarti_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP that_DD1 industry_NN1 ,_, under_II Fascist_JJ rule_NN1 ,_, &bquo;_" managed_VVD to_TO return_VVI a_AT1 degree_NN1 of_IO autonomy_NN1 &hellip;_... preserve_VV0 traditional_JJ prerogatives_NN2 and_CC broaden_VV0 it_PPH1 's_VBZ access_NN1 to_II government_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Going_VVG against_II the_AT totalitarian_JJ goal_NN1 of_IO &bquo;_" being_VBG absorbed_VVN in_II the_AT state_NN1 &equo;_" (_( Sarti_NP1 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
Through_II mass_JJ organisations_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 Dopolavro_NP1 ,_, ONB_NP1 ,_, and_CC GIL_NP1 ,_, the_AT fascist_JJ regime_NN1 attempted_VVD to_TO influence_VVI the_AT social_JJ and_CC leisure_NN1 time_NNT1 of_IO the_AT masses_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 movements_NN2 ,_, especially_RR the_AT youth_NN1 movement_NN1 GIL_NN1 ,_, tended_VVD to_TO keep_VVI the_AT middle_NN1 and_CC working_VVG classes_NN2 apart_RL ,_, reflecting_VVG deep_RR social_JJ divides_VVZ in_II Italy_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Victoria_NP1 De_NP1 Grazia_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP that_CST the_AT Italian_JJ fascists_NN2 practised_VVD what_DDQ might_VM be_VBI described_VVN as_II &bquo;_" selective_JJ totalitarianism_NN1 &equo;_" ,_, which_DDQ had_VHD little_DA1 of_IO the_AT &bquo;_" compulsive_JJ thoroughness_NN1 &equo;_" of_IO Nazi_JJ Gleichschattung_NP1 or_CC synchronisation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Italian_JJ fascism_NN1 tended_VVD not_XX to_TO regulate_VVI groups_NN2 which_DDQ posed_VVD no_AT obvious_JJ threat_NN1 to_II the_AT regime_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Nor_CC did_VDD it_PPH1 seek_VVI to_TO extend_VVI state_NN1 and_CC party_NN1 control_NN1 into_II areas_NN2 of_IO civil_JJ life_NN1 which_DDQ served_VVD no_AT immediate_JJ political_JJ and_CC economic_JJ end_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Fascism_NN1 did_VDD &bquo;_" intrude_VV0 &equo;_" (_( De_NP1 Grazia_NP1 )_) society_NN1 by_II using_VVG the_AT state_NN1 apparatus_NN1 to_II legitimate_JJ their_APPGE rule_NN1 through_II force_NN1 and_CC consent_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
De_NP1 Grazia_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP that_CST there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 fundamental_JJ transformation_NN1 in_II the_AT way_NN1 the_AT power_NN1 was_VBDZ exercised_VVN and_CC that_CST this_DD1 did_VDD influence_VVI the_AT state_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, Tannenbaum_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP ,_, that_DD1 Italian_JJ society_NN1 remained_VVD as_RG &bquo;_" hierarchical_JJ and_CC divided_VVN as_CSA before_RT &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR we_PPIS2 can_VM see_VVI how_RRQ the_AT social_JJ policies_NN2 of_IO Italian_JJ Fascism_NN1 failed_VVN to_II meat_NN1 its_APPGE objective_NN1 of_IO creating_VVG a_AT1 classless_JJ society_NN1 enough_RR they_PPHS2 did_VDD change_VVI one_MC1 nature_NN1 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 and_CC politics_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Germany_NP1 put_VVD in_RP to_II practice_NN1 its_APPGE social_JJ ideology_NN1 and_CC policy_NN1 in_II a_AT1 much_RR more_RGR vigorous_JJ way_NN1 than_CSN Italy_NP1 did_VDD ._. 
</s>
<s>
On_II the_AT surface_NN1 Germany_NP1 seemed_VVD far_RG more_RGR successful_JJ than_CSN Italy_NP1 in_II creating_VVG a_AT1 classless_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Ley_NP1 declared_VVD &bquo;_" we_PPIS2 are_VBR the_AT first_MD country_NN1 in_II Europe_NP1 to_TO overcome_VVI the_AT class_NN1 struggle_NN1 ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, Schoenbaum_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP the_AT superficial_JJ level_NN1 of_IO social_JJ change_NN1 pointing_VVG to_II the_AT &bquo;_" schizophrenia_NN1 &equo;_" of_IO Nazi_JJ society_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; where_CS it_PPH1 &bquo;_" could_VM be_VBI seen_VVN everything_PN1 had_VHD changed_VVN and_CC nothing_PN1 had_VHD changed_VVN ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
While_CS he_PPHS1 points_VVZ out_RP the_AT &bquo;_" approximation_NN1 of_IO class_NN1 and_CC status_NN1 came_VVD to_II an_AT1 end_NN1 &equo;_" and_CC that_DD1 &bquo;_" traditional_JJ class_NN1 structures_NN2 broke_VVD down_RP &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 argues_VVZ that_CST there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 &bquo;_" dual_JJ society_NN1 &equo;_" in_II Nazi_JJ Germany_NP1 ;_; one_PN1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT &bquo;_" addition_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 uniform_NN1 or_CC lapel_NN1 pin_NN1 &equo;_" could_VM invalidate_VVI traditional_JJ ties_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Nazi_JJ life_NN1 was_VBDZ detached_VVN from_II traditional_JJ underlying_JJ relationships_NN2 which_DDQ still_RR continued_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
&bquo;_" Employers_NN2 remained_VVD employers_NN2 even_CS21 when_CS22 addressed_VVN as_CSA workers_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT real_JJ triumph_NN1 of_IO national_JJ socialism_NN1 ,_, argues_VVZ Schoenbaum_NP1 ,_, was_VBDZ not_XX so_RG much_RR the_AT creation_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 new_JJ society_NN1 as_II the_AT creating_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 &bquo;_" new_JJ social_JJ consciousness_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Dahnendorf_NP1 emphasises_VVZ the_AT failure_NN1 of_IO Nazi_JJ Germany_NP1 to_TO establish_VVI a_AT1 complete_JJ ,_, totalitarian_JJ basis_NN1 of_IO support_NN1 through_II social_JJ reform_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 points_VVZ out_RP that_DD1 coordination_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 dominant_JJ tendency_NN1 ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 was_VBDZ not_XX total_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT hold_NN1 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 and_CC party_NN1 &bquo;_" did_VDD not_XX extend_VVI in_RP to_II every_AT1 family_NN1 &equo;_" and_CC some_DD sections_NN2 of_IO society_NN1 &bquo;_" maintained_VVD a_AT1 certain_JJ autonomy_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR we_PPIS2 can_VM see_VVI how_RGQ social_JJ reform_NN1 in_II Fascist_JJ Italy_NP1 and_CC Nazi_JJ Germany_NP1 did_VDD not_XX achieve_VVI ,_, fully_RR ,_, its_APPGE aim_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 classless_JJ ,_, mass-disciplined_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Though_CS in_II Germany_NP1 traditional_JJ cleavages_NN2 were_VBDR less_RGR obvious_JJ than_CSN in_II Italy_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Did_VDD the_AT social_JJ reform_NN1 of_IO Fascist_JJ Italy_NP1 and_CC Nazi_JJ Germany_NP1 create_VV0 &bquo;_" embryonic_JJ Welfare_NN1 states_NN2 ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
In_II both_RR Italy_NP1 and_CC Germany_NP1 legislation_NN1 relation_NN1 to_II social_JJ reform_NN1 was_VBDZ introduced_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
But_CCB as_CSA Syrup_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP this_DD1 could_VM only_RR be_VBI called_VVN &bquo;_" minimal_JJ &equo;_" though_CS it_PPH1 was_VBDZ not_XX retrogressive_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
When_CS the_AT Fascists_NN2 and_CC National_JJ Socialists_NN2 took_VVD office_NN1 they_PPHS2 promised_VVD fast_RR and_CC far_RR reaching_VVG social_JJ reforms_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, virtually_RR nothing_PN1 came_VVD of_IO them_PPHO2 except_II occasional_JJ improvements_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, in_II Germany_NP1 between_II 1935_MC and_CC 1939_MC legislation_NN1 was_VBDZ introduced_VVN ,_, guaranteeing_VVG work_NN1 for_IF the_AT building_NN1 trade_NN1 ,_, creating_VVG a_AT1 unitary_JJ administration_NN1 of_IO public_JJ employment_NN1 ,_, limited_JJ obligatory_JJ old-age_JJ insurance_NN1 ,_, and_CC health_NN1 insurance_NN1 for_IF some_DD trades_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II Italy_NP1 ,_, due_II21 to_II22 the_AT low_JJ level_NN1 of_IO wages_NN2 ,_, the_AT fascist_JJ trade_NN1 unions_NN2 secured_VVD complementary_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO compensation_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 family_NN1 subsidies_NN2 ,_, sick_JJ pay_NN1 ,_, year-end_JJ bonuses_NN2 ,_, and_CC paid_VVD national_JJ holidays_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, it_PPH1 must_VM be_VBI remembered_VVN that_CST despite_II these_DD2 minimal_JJ gains_NN2 ,_, labour_NN1 lost_VVD all_DB of_IO its_APPGE institutional_JJ rights_NN2 ,_, the_AT right_NN1 to_TO organise_VVI ,_, freedom_NN1 of_IO movement_NN1 ,_, the_AT right_NN1 of_IO collective_JJ bargaining_NN1 ,_, and_CC freedom_NN1 of_IO vocational_JJ choice_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT limited_JJ social_JJ policy_NN1 introduced_VVN by_II Mussolini_NP1 in_II Italy_NP1 and_CC Hitler_NP1 in_II Germany_NP1 should_VM be_VBI seen_VVN within_II the_AT context_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 totalitarian_JJ Fascist/Nazi_JJ state_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT legislation_NN1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 by-product_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 regimes_NN2 attempts_VVZ to_TO create_VVI a_AT1 mass_NN1 ,_, totalitarian_JJ basis_NN1 of_IO support_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Structurally_RR speaking_VVG ,_, it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI said_VVN that_CST the_AT highly_RR centralised_JJ structure_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 states_NN2 and_CC the_AT minimal_JJ legislation_NN1 introduced_VVN could_VM constitute_VVI an_AT1 &bquo;_" embryonic_JJ welfare_NN1 state_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, morally_RR speaking_VVG ,_, the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 states_NN2 can_VM not_XX be_VBI seen_VVN to_TO be_VBI catering_VVG for_IF the_AT betterment_NN1 of_IO the_AT broad_JJ masses_NN2 but_CCB the_AT consolidation_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 ruling_JJ groups_NN2 power_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT minimal_JJ structural_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 &bquo;_" welfare_NN1 states_NN2 &equo;_" can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN to_TO have_VHI arisen_VVN out_II21 of_II22 their_APPGE regime_NN1 's_GE policies_NN2 rather_CS21 than_CS22 be_VBI created_VVN by_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
UNIVERSITY_NN1 OF_IO EDINBURGH_NP1 ,_, DEPARTMENT_NN1 OF_IO HISTORY_NN1 POLITICAL_JJ POWER_NN1 IN_II THE_AT SHAPING_NN1 OF_IO SOCIETY_NN1 IN_II EUROPE_NP1 ,_, 1870-1940_MCMC ESSAY_NN1 7_MC &mdash;_- ;_; Did_VDD Tsarism_NN1 show_VV0 any_DD real_JJ signs_NN2 of_IO re-establishing_VVG it_PPH1 's_VBZ grip_NN1 on_II Russia_NP1 in_II the_AT period_NN1 after_II 1905_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
KIERAN_NP1 LEE_NP1 TUTORS_NN2 NAME_VV0 :_: Jill_NP1 Stephenson_NP1 28th_MD of_IO April_NPM1 1991_MC The_AT Autocracy_NN1 in_II Russia_NP1 ,_, following_VVG 1905_MC ,_, increasingly_RR faced_VVN new_JJ challenges_NN2 and_CC a_AT1 growing_JJ opposition_NN1 that_CST lead_VV0 to_II its_APPGE eventual_JJ downfall_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II 1905_MC ,_, the_AT massacre_NN1 on_II Bloody_JJ Sunday_NPD1 galvanised_JJ political_JJ opposition_NN1 against_II Tsarism_NN1 and_CC was_VBDZ seen_VVN by_II Liberals_NN2 and_CC Marxist_JJ alike_JJ &bquo;_" as_II the_AT first_MD engagement_NN1 if_CS a_AT1 larger_JJR and_CC longer_JJR battle_NN1 &equo;_" (_( Rogger_NP1 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Bolsheviks_NN2 and_CC Mensheviks_NN2 proclaimed_VVN Bloody_RR Sunday_NPD1 as_II the_AT &bquo;_" beginning_NN1 of_IO revolution_NN1 &equo;_" (_( Rogger_NP1 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT threat_NN1 of_IO violence_NN1 and_CC real_JJ fear_NN1 of_IO revolution_NN1 prompted_VVD the_AT Government_NN1 to_TO adopt_VVI limited_JJ constitutional_JJ changes_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Witte_NN1 concessions_NN2 in_II the_AT October_NPM1 Manifesto_NN1 were_VBDR aimed_VVN to_TO close_VVI the_AT breech_NN1 between_II the_AT state_NN1 and_CC society_NN1 and_CC to_TO close_VVI the_AT gap_NN1 between_II &bquo;_" the_AT inherited_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO Russian_JJ social_JJ and_CC political_JJ life_NN1 and_CC the_AT emergence_NN1 of_IO new_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO opposition_NN1 &equo;_" (_( Sir_NNB Arthur_NP1 Nicholson_NP1 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 essay_NN1 will_VM examine_VVI the_AT forces_NN2 that_CST lead_VV0 to_II Tsar_NNB Nicholas_NP1 losing_VVG his_APPGE &bquo;_" grip_NN1 &equo;_" on_II Russia_NP1 ;_; how_RRQ the_AT Tsar_NN1 tried_VVD to_TO re-establish_VVI his_APPGE power_NN1 and_CC whether_CSW the_AT destruction_NN1 of_IO the_AT autocracy_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 political_JJ mishap_NN1 or_CC part_NN1 of_IO deeper_JJR forces_NN2 which_DDQ meant_VVD the_AT Russian_JJ &bquo;_" road_NN1 &equo;_" to_II a_AT1 constitutional_JJ state_NN1 was_VBDZ an_AT1 impossibility_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT seeds_NN2 of_IO crises_NN2 and_CC destruction_NN1 of_IO the_AT Russian_JJ autocracy_NN1 were_VBDR apparent_JJ well_NN1 before_II 1905_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT growth_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 heavy_JJ industrial_JJ base_NN1 ,_, itself_PPX1 not_XX imposed_VVN to_II Tsarism_NN1 ,_, unleashed_VVD enormous_JJ tensions_NN2 in_II Russian_JJ society_NN1 and_CC politics_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT major_JJ force_NN1 of_IO industrialisation_NN1 was_VBDZ foreign_JJ policy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Russia_NP1 's_GE desire_NN1 to_TO maintain_VVI her_APPGE status_NN1 as_II a_AT1 great_JJ power_NN1 demanded_VVD a_AT1 program_NN1 of_IO modernisation_NN1 and_CC rearmament_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Increasingly_RR ,_, to_TO finance_VVI this_DD1 ,_, the_AT Russian_JJ economy_NN1 was_VBDZ tied_VVN to_II foreign_JJ loans_NN2 and_CC an_AT1 erratic_JJ international_JJ money_NN1 market_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Mendel_NN1 points_VVZ out_RP that_CST this_DD1 helped_VVN pave_VVI the_AT way_NN1 for_IF economic_JJ crises_NN2 that_CST aggravated_VVD social_JJ discontent_NN1 before_II 1905_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
Sergei_NP1 Witte_NP1 ,_, the_AT Tsar_NN1 's_GE minister_NN1 of_IO finance_NN1 ,_, realised_VVD that_CST creating_VVG an_AT1 industrial_JJ base_NN1 for_IF Russia_NP1 had_VHD risks_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
His_APPGE gamble_NN1 on_II the_AT ability_NN1 of_IO industry_NN1 to_TO produce_VVI improved_JJ living_JJ conditions_NN2 before_II the_AT peasantry_NN1 and_CC proletariat_NN1 found_VVD the_AT burden_NN1 intolerable_JJ ,_, did_VDD not_XX come_VVI off_RP ._. 
</s>
<s>
Kochan_NP1 supports_VVZ this_DD1 view_NN1 about_II the_AT economic_JJ burden_NN1 of_IO industrial_JJ development_NN1 and_CC points_VVZ out_RP that_DD1 &bquo;_" industrial_JJ development_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE implications_NN2 &hellip;_... were_VBDR the_AT most_RGT potent_JJ challenge_NN1 to_II the_AT status_NN121 quo_NN122 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Russian_JJ society_NN1 became_VVD increasingly_RR more_RGR diverse_JJ and_CC isolated_VVN from_II the_AT state_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
New_JJ merchant_NN1 and_CC professional_JJ classes_NN2 arose_VVD and_CC a_AT1 proletariat_NN1 developed_VVN out_II21 of_II22 the_AT peasantry_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
At_II the_AT turn_NN1 of_IO the_AT century_NNT1 ,_, Russian_JJ society_NN1 was_VBDZ changing_VVG and_CC it_PPH1 was_VBDZ the_AT challenge_NN1 of_IO the_AT autocracy_NN1 to_TO absorb_VVI these_DD2 changes_NN2 or_CC push_VV0 increasingly_RR alienated_JJ social_JJ groups_NN2 further_RRR into_II political_JJ and_CC social_JJ isolation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_CSA their_APPGE grievances_NN2 were_VBDR not_XX met_VVN ,_, or_CC even_RR acknowledged_VVN by_II the_AT ultimate_JJ power_NN1 in_II the_AT state_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; the_AT Tsar_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Kochan_NP1 demonstrates_VVZ how_RRQ the_AT autocracy_NN1 failed_VVD to_TO absorb_VVI these_DD2 grievances_NN2 and_CC changes_NN2 in_II society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Especially_RR those_DD2 of_IO the_AT poor_JJ workers_NN2 and_CC peasants_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ the_AT mass_NN1 of_IO poor_JJ Russians_NN2 ,_, the_AT workers_NN2 and_CC peasants_NN2 that_CST bore_VV0 the_AT cost_NN1 of_IO industrialisation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Mendel_NN1 argues_VVZ that_CST the_AT government_NN1 's_GE policy_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 high_JJ rate_NN1 of_IO indirect_JJ taxation_NN1 and_CC the_AT high_JJ price_NN1 of_IO imported_JJ goods_NN2 meant_VVD that_DD1 industry_NN1 ,_, far_RR from_II bringing_VVG benefit_NN1 to_II the_AT masses_NN2 ,_, actually_RR contributed_VVN to_II their_APPGE impoverishment_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT failure_NN1 of_IO the_AT government_NN1 to_TO acknowledge_VVI the_AT &bquo;_" irredeemable_JJ poverty_NN1 &equo;_" (_( Kochan_NP1 )_) of_IO the_AT masses_NN2 ,_, forced_VVD the_AT peasants_NN2 and_CC workers_NN2 to_TO demonstrate_VVI their_APPGE grievances_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT workers_NN2 and_CC peasants_NN2 increasingly_RR found_VVN a_AT1 common_JJ economic_JJ opposition_NN1 to_II the_AT Tsar_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Kochan_NP1 further_RRR argues_VVZ that_CST the_AT grievances_NN2 of_IO the_AT workers_NN2 and_CC peasants_NN2 supported_VVD each_PPX221 other_PPX222 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 points_VVZ out_RP that_CST the_AT working_JJ classes_NN2 consisted_VVD mainly_RR of_IO peasants_NN2 forced_VVN off_II the_AT land_NN1 through_II extreme_JJ poverty_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RRQV the_AT workers_NN2 ties_VVZ to_II the_AT countryside_NN1 remained_VVD strong_JJ due_II21 to_II22 the_AT seasonal_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO factory_NN1 work_NN1 ,_, the_AT close_NN1 of_IO factories_NN2 to_II the_AT countryside_NN1 and_CC the_AT legal_JJ and_CC family_NN1 ties_NN2 of_IO the_AT workers_NN2 to_II the_AT peasant_NN1 commune_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT harnessing_NN1 of_IO the_AT village_NN1 to_II the_AT town_NN1 in_II this_DD1 way_NN1 helped_VVD to_TO bring_VVI radical_JJ ideas_NN2 to_II the_AT village_NN1 and_CC give_VV0 a_AT1 political_JJ voice_NN1 to_II the_AT problems_NN2 of_IO poverty_NN1 and_CC land_NN1 shortage_NN1 in_II the_AT countryside_NN1 &hellip;_... 
</s>
<s>
The_AT hardship_NN1 and_CC poverty_NN1 of_IO the_AT workers_NN2 meant_VVD that_CST ,_, increasingly_RR ,_, strikes_NN2 became_VVD part_NN1 of_IO industrial_JJ life_NN1 in_II the_AT towns_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Kochan_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP from_II 1895_MC to_II 1905_MC the_AT strike_NN1 movement_NN1 grew_VVD ,_, increasingly_RR it_PPH1 had_VHD political_JJ rather_II21 than_II22 simple_JJ economic_JJ concerns_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT workers_NN2 not_XX only_RR suffered_VVN from_II moderate_JJ wages_NN2 but_CCB also_RR from_II a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO resentment_NN1 ,_, humiliation_NN1 and_CC social_JJ isolation_NN1 at_II taking_VVG factory_NN1 work_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Their_APPGE grievances_NN2 were_VBDR almost_RR totally_RR ignored_VVN by_II the_AT government_NN1 and_CC thus_RR since_CS the_AT government_NN1 suppressed_VVD almost_RR any_DD step_NN1 taken_VVN collectively_RR by_II the_AT workers_NN2 to_TO improve_VVI their_APPGE economic_JJ position_NN1 ,_, the_AT political_JJ aims_NN2 of_IO the_AT workers_NN2 became_VVD dominant_JJ over_II the_AT economic_JJ goals_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_II the_AT measures_NN2 of_IO repression_NN1 by_II the_AT government_NN1 grew_VVD ,_, it_PPH1 became_VVD necessary_JJ to_TO use_VVI the_AT army_NN1 to_TO quell_VVI strikes_NN2 and_CC disturbances_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 demonstrated_VVD the_AT disturbed_JJ state_NN1 of_IO Russian_JJ industrial_JJ relations_NN2 as_II the_AT proletariat_NN1 remained_VVD outside_II society_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; deprived_JJ of_IO any_DD stake_NN1 in_II the_AT existing_JJ order_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR we_PPIS2 can_VM see_VVI how_RRQ the_AT isolation_NN1 of_IO the_AT Tsar_NN1 and_CC the_AT grievances_NN2 of_IO the_AT masses_NN2 ,_, especially_RR after_II the_AT Russia_NP1 's_GE loss_NN1 in_II the_AT Russo-Japanese_JJ war_NN1 (_( which_DDQ severely_RR aggravated_JJ poverty_NN1 and_CC hardship_NN1 )_) forced_VVD the_AT peasants_NN2 and_CC workers_NN2 to_TO widen_VVI their_APPGE initial_JJ economic_JJ grievances_NN2 into_II demands_NN2 for_IF political_JJ change_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II a_AT1 state_NN1 where_RRQ autocracy_NN1 sought_VVD to_TO monopolise_VVI all_DB forms_NN2 of_IO political_JJ life_NN1 no_AT political_JJ party_NN1 could_VM really_RR exist_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
Yet_RR within_II two_MC years_NNT2 three_MC parties_NN2 illegally_RR took_VVD to_II the_AT field_NN1 in_II opposition_NN1 to_II Tsarism_NN1 ,_, demonstrating_VVG the_AT strength_NN1 of_IO feeling_VVG against_II the_AT autocracy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II 1901_MC the_AT Social_JJ Revolutionaries_NN2 were_VBDR formed_VVN and_CC in_II 1903_MC the_AT Liberal_JJ Party_NN1 and_CC Social_JJ Democrats_NN2 were_VBDR established_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT quickening_NN1 of_IO political_JJ life_NN1 &bquo;_" demonstrated_VVD the_AT increasingly_RR fluid_JJ state_NN1 of_IO Russia_NP1 at_II the_AT turn_NN1 of_IO the_AT century_NNT1 &equo;_" (_( Kochan_NP1 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
Rogger_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP that_DD1 Bloody_JJ Sunday_NPD1 &bquo;_" galvanised_VVD the_AT political_JJ opposition_NN1 &equo;_" and_CC the_AT following_JJ uprising_NN1 ,_, triggered_VVN by_II the_AT massacre_NN1 in_II St._NP1 Petersburg_NP1 ,_, demonstrated_VVD the_AT grievances_NN2 of_IO the_AT masses_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT real_JJ fear_NN1 that_CST this_DD1 revolution_NN1 might_VM overthrow_VVI the_AT Tsar_NN1 forced_VVD him_PPHO1 to_TO make_VVI some_DD political_JJ concessions_NN2 to_TO appease_VVI the_AT masses_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR a_AT1 limited_JJ constitution_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 representative_JJ body_NN1 ,_, the_AT Duma_NP1 appeared_VVD in_II Russia_NP1 for_IF the_AT first_MD time_NNT1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Riha_NN1 ,_, in_II his_APPGE book_NN1 &bquo;_" Russian_JJ Constitutionalism_NN1 &equo;_" ,_, showed_VVD how_RRQ the_AT Tsar_NN1 tried_VVD to_TO reassert_VVI his_APPGE power_NN1 and_CC how_RRQ the_AT forces_NN2 of_IO opposition_NN1 heeded_VVN to_II this_DD1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 points_VVZ out_RP that_CST on_II April_NPM1 24th_MD ,_, 1906_MC the_AT Emperor_NNB Nicholas_NP1 II_MC addressed_VVD the_AT deputies_NN2 of_IO his_APPGE first_MD Duma_NP1 ,_, stating_VVG that_CST the_AT Duma_NP1 represented_VVD the_AT &bquo;_" rebirth_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE best_JJT forces_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, many_DA2 remained_VVD sceptical_JJ ,_, remembering_VVG the_AT Tsars_NN2 pledge_VV0 in_II 1895_MC in_II a_AT1 speech_NN1 to_II Zemstvo_NP1 representative_NN1 to_TO maintain_VVI autocracy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT first_MD Russian_JJ parliament_NN1 was_VBDZ established_VVN in_II a_AT1 country_NN1 which_DDQ had_VHD little_RR done_VDN to_TO prepare_VVI the_AT ground_NN1 for_IF constitutionalism_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Rogger_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP that_CST any_DD moves_NN2 towards_II a_AT1 representative_JJ democracy_NN1 were_VBDR blocked_VVN by_II the_AT negative_JJ attitude_NN1 of_IO representative_JJ institutions_NN2 which_DDQ was_VBDZ shared_VVN by_II the_AT Tsar_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Municipal_JJ and_CC rural_JJ self-government_NN1 remained_VVD &bquo;_" weak_JJ plans_NN2 in_II autocratic_JJ Russia_NP1 &equo;_" (_( Rogger_NP1 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
Despite_II the_AT promises_NN2 of_IO the_AT October_NPM1 manifesto_NN1 in_II the_AT spring_NN1 of_IO 1906_MC ,_, there_EX were_VBDR still_RR no_AT guarantees_NN2 of_IO political_JJ freedom_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR ,_, in_II 1906_MC ,_, Russian_JJ constitutionalism_NN1 was_VBDZ born_VVN into_II an_AT1 atmosphere_NN1 of_IO &bquo;_" promise_NN1 and_CC denial_NN1 &equo;_" (_( Riha_NP1 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT party_NN1 's_GE anger_NN1 and_CC resentment_NN1 at_II the_AT limited_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 action_NN1 did_VDD not_XX augur_VVI well_RR for_IF the_AT smooth_JJ functioning_NN1 of_IO the_AT Russian_JJ Parliament_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT revolutionary_JJ experience_NN1 1905_MC pushed_VVD Russia_NP1 under_RP of_IO Semi-constitution_NN1 ,_, where_CS the_AT emperor_NN1 ceased_VVD to_TO be_VBI seen_VVN as_II an_AT1 autocrat_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, Tsar_NNB Nicholas_NP1 II_MC still_RR retained_VVN formidable_JJ powers_NN2 &mdash;_- ;_; an_AT1 absolute_JJ veto_NN1 on_II all_DB legislation_NN1 ,_, full_JJ control_NN1 of_IO foreign_JJ affairs_NN2 ,_, he_PPHS1 had_VHD emergency_NN1 powers_NN2 under_II Article_NN1 87_MC ,_, and_CC appointed_VVN half_DB the_AT members_NN2 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 council_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ could_VM veto_VVI the_AT Duma_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, Riha_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP ,_, Russia_NP1 an_AT1 instrument_NN1 by_II which_DDQ popular_JJ will_NN1 ,_, even_CS21 if_CS22 filtered_VVN by_II restrictive_JJ suffrage_NN1 ,_, could_VM be_VBI expressed_VVN in_II legislation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT individual_JJ citizen_NN1 was_VBDZ beginning_VVG to_TO learn_VVI he_PPHS1 had_VHD recourse_NN1 against_II the_AT all_DB powerful_JJ government_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT results_NN2 of_IO the_AT five_MC years_NNT2 of_IO legislation_NN1 were_VBDR modest_JJ ,_, but_CCB not_XX insignificant_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RRQV the_AT hostility_NN1 of_IO the_AT Duma_NP1 increased_VVD as_II the_AT country_NN1 as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 became_VVD more_RGR radical_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Despite_II this_DD1 the_AT Duma_NP1 was_VBDZ reduced_VVN from_II a_AT1 legislative_JJ to_II a_AT1 consultative_JJ body_NN1 and_CC hedged_VVN by_II all_DB manner_NN1 of_IO restrictions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II May_NPM1 ,_, 1914_MC a_AT1 resolution_NN1 against_II the_AT government_NN1 was_VBDZ passed_VVN &bquo;_" the_AT ministry_NN1 's_GE activities_NN2 arouse_VV0 dissatisfaction_NN1 among_II the_AT broad_JJ masses_NN2 who_PNQS have_VH0 hitherto_RT been_VBN peaceful_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Such_DA a_AT1 situation_NN1 threatened_VVD Russia_NP1 with_IW untold_JJ dangers_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT war_NN1 of_IO 1914_MC and_CC the_AT outburst_NN1 of_IO patriotism_NN1 saved_VVD the_AT government_NN1 from_II an_AT1 approaching_JJ storm_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
But_CCB the_AT military_JJ failures_NN2 revealed_VVD the_AT weaknesses_NN2 and_CC incompetences_NN2 of_IO one_MC1 regime_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Riha_NN1 points_VVZ out_RP that_CST a_AT1 monarch_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 vital_JJ prerequisite_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 constitutional_JJ state_NN1 in_II Russia_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, Tsar_NNB Nicholas_NP1 II_MC did_VDD everything_PN1 to_TO discredit_VVI itself_PPX1 in_II the_AT public_JJ eyes_NN2 instead_II21 of_II22 cooperating_VVG with_IW his_APPGE nation_NN1 he_PPHS1 withdrew_VVD further_RRR from_II realities_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Van_NP1 Laue_NP1 asserted_VVD &bquo;_" there_EX was_VBDZ no_AT chance_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 liberal_JJ constitution_NN1 in_II Russia_NP1 whatsoever_DDQV &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Historians_NN2 are_VBR divided_VVN into_II two_MC viewpoints_NN2 about_II the_AT Tsars_NN2 ability_NN1 to_TO reassert_VVI his_APPGE power_NN1 and_CC avoid_VVI revolution.They_NNU are_VBR the_AT optimists_NN2 and_CC pessimists_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT optimists_NN2 feel_VV0 that_CST ,_, in_II the_AT last_MD decade_NNT1 of_IO imperialism_NN1 ,_, Russia_NP1 was_VBDZ trying_VVG an_AT1 evolution_NN1 to_II Western_JJ style_NN1 parliamentary_JJ government_NN1 and_CC open_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT pessimists_NN2 argue_VV0 that_CST there_EX were_VBDR deeper_JJR forces_NN2 determining_VVG the_AT fate_NN1 of_IO Russia_NP1 toward_II a_AT1 Bolshevik_JJ denouement_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT optimists_NN2 feel_VV0 that_CST in_II the_AT absence_NN1 of_IO war_NN1 Russia_NP1 would_VM have_VHI continued_VVN on_II the_AT road_NN1 to_II progressive_JJ modernisation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Through_II the_AT pressures_NN2 of_IO the_AT &bquo;_" growing_JJ labour_NN1 movement_NN1 ,_, the_AT liberal_JJ middle-class_JJ and_CC the_AT socially_RR conscious_JJ intelligentsia_NN1 &equo;_" (_( Mendel_NP1 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT optimists_NN2 point_VV0 out_RP that_CST the_AT most_RGT substantial_JJ progress_NN1 in_II Russian_JJ political_JJ life_NN1 was_VBDZ the_AT establishment_NN1 of_IO the_AT Duma_NP1 monarch_NN1 (_( 1906-1914_MCMC )_) ,_, the_AT closest_JJT Russia_NP1 got_VVD to_II a_AT1 constitutional_JJ Government_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
During_II the_AT reign_NN1 of_IO Nicholas_NP1 II_MC ,_, the_AT speedy_JJ industrial_JJ growth_NN1 ,_, the_AT transformation_NN1 of_IO peasants_NN2 to_II small_JJ proprietors_NN2 through_II the_AT emancipation_NN1 and_CC Stolypin_NP1 's_GE reforms_NN2 ,_, the_AT spread_NN1 of_IO education_NN1 local_JJ government_NN1 through_II the_AT Zemstovs_NP2 and_CC the_AT Duma_NP1 all_RR contributed_VVN to_TO create_VVI a_AT1 constitutional_JJ climate_NN1 in_II Russia_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Bourgeois_JJ revolutions_NN2 of_IO 1905_MC and_CC 1917_MC seemed_VVD to_II the_AT optimists_NN2 a_AT1 natural_JJ development_NN1 on_II the_AT Russian_JJ road_NN1 to_II a_AT1 Western_JJ style_NN1 constitutional_JJ state_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, in_II 1917_MC ,_, a_AT1 new_JJ revolutionary_JJ wave_NN1 was_VBDZ in_II ascent_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX was_VBDZ an_AT1 increase_NN1 in_II strikes_NN2 ,_, an_AT1 all_DB intensification_NN1 of_IO the_AT strain_NN1 between_II the_AT opposition_NN1 and_CC the_AT state_NN1 which_DDQ increased_JJ trends_NN2 towards_II invited_JJ political_JJ activity_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT war_NN1 raised_VVD discontent_NN1 to_II revolutionary_JJ pitch_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
And_CC once_RR21 again_RR22 the_AT autocracy_NN1 appeared_VVD unable_JK to_TO mobilise_VVI effectively_RR the_AT resources_NN2 that_CST they_PPHS2 created_VVD ,_, through_II an_AT1 industrial_JJ economy_NN1 ,_, to_TO fight_VVI a_AT1 modern_JJ war_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Union_NP1 discontent_NN1 was_VBDZ lead_VVN by_II a_AT1 well-organised_JJ unified_JJ opposition_NN1 front_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT Rasputin_NP1 affair_NN1 further_RRR lost_VVN legitimacy_NN1 of_IO Tsarism_NN1 with_IW an_AT1 opposition_NN1 stronger_JJR than_CSN in_II 1905_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT essential_JJ question_NN1 ,_, Mendel_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP ,_, is_VBZ whether_CSW a_AT1 social_JJ and_CC economic_JJ transformation_NN1 could_VM take_VVI place_NN1 without_IW altering_VVG the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Mendel_NP1 's_GE answer_NN1 is_VBZ no_UH ,_, for_IF not_XX only_RR economic_JJ resources_NN2 had_VHD to_TO change_VVI through_II modernisation_NN1 ,_, but_CCB also_RR the_AT traditional_JJ political_JJ regime_NN1 had_VHD to_TO be_VBI replaced_VVN by_II urban_JJ classes_NN2 used_VVN by_II commercial_JJ and_CC bourgeois_JJ interests_NN2 the_AT main_JJ beneficiaries_NN2 of_IO change_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT case_NN1 of_IO the_AT optimists_NN2 is_VBZ under_RG persistent_JJ attack_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT most_RGT vigorous_JJ is_VBZ from_II Professor_NNB Theodore_NP1 Van_NP1 Laue_NP1 ,_, allowing_VVG &bquo;_" no_AT chance_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 liberal_JJ constitutional_JJ Russia_NP1 whatsoever_DDQV &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Van_NP1 Laue_NP1 is_VBZ willing_JJ to_TO acknowledge_VVI progressive_JJ development_NN1 listed_VVN by_II an_AT1 united_JJ opposition_NN1 ,_, economic_JJ expansion_NN1 ,_, and_CC advance_VV0 in_II education_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT improved_JJ peasant_NN1 status_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
But_CCB he_PPHS1 easily_RR discredits_VVZ them_PPHO2 ,_, stating_VVG &bquo;_" next_II21 to_II22 voting_NN1 was_VBDZ accomplished_VVN on_II regard_NN1 to_II the_AT basic_JJ necessities_NN2 confronting_VVG the_AT country_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 sees_VVZ the_AT revolution_NN1 of_IO 1905_MC as_II a_AT1 &bquo;_" disintegrating_JJ halfway_JJ stage_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 a_AT1 hopeful_JJ beginning_NN1 &equo;_" ,_, stressing_VVG the_AT &bquo;_" superficial_JJ glow_NN1 &equo;_" and_CC &bquo;_" gloss_NN1 of_IO success_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Van_NP1 Laue_NP1 puts_VVZ forward_RL the_AT argument_NN1 that_CST Russia_NP1 was_VBDZ fatally_RR trapped_VVN in_II an_AT1 agonising_JJ contradiction_NN1 that_CST produced_VVD the_AT establishment_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 parliamentary_JJ government_NN1 or_CC in_II fact_NN1 any_DD other_JJ government_NN1 than_CSN the_AT Bolsheviks_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT main_JJ proof_NN1 Van_NP1 Laue_NP1 offers_NN2 for_IF this_DD1 argument_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT polarisation_NN1 of_IO society_NN1 between_II global_JJ conflict_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 backward_JJ society_NN1 that_CST made_VVD a_AT1 liberal_JJ constitution_NN1 impossible_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 states_VVZ that_CST without_IW economic_JJ development_NN1 in_II Russia_NP1 impossible_JJ without_IW rapid_JJ industrialisation_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ incompatible_JJ with_IW a_AT1 liberal_JJ constitution_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Why_RRQ was_VBDZ this_DD1 incompatible_JJ ?_? 
</s>
<s>
Van_NP1 Laue_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP that_DD1 rapid_JJ industrialisation_NN1 would_VM never_RR have_VHI found_VVN majority_NN1 support_NN1 under_II a_AT1 parliamentary_JJ regime_NN1 ,_, &bquo;_" especially_RR as_CSA Russian_JJ liberalism_NN1 was_VBDZ largely_RR agrarian_JJ in_II orientation_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 also_RR points_VVZ out_RP &bquo;_" the_AT freedoms_NN2 of_IO the_AT Western_JJ model_NN1 were_VBDR incompatible_JJ with_IW government_NN1 initiative_NN1 in_II the_AT Russian_JJ tradition_NN1 &equo;_" and_CC &bquo;_" parliamentary_JJ government_NN1 under_II Russian_JJ conditions_NN2 &equo;_" simply_RR could_VM not_XX solve_VVI Russian_JJ problems_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Stavov_NP1 supports_VVZ Van_NP1 Laue_NP1 argues_VVZ that_CST the_AT only_JJ way_NN1 Russia_NP1 might_VM advance_VVI fast_RR enough_RR to_TO avoid_VVI the_AT disaster_NN1 of_IO inevitable_JJ global_JJ conflict_NN1 was_VBDZ through_II a_AT1 &bquo;_" totalitarian_JJ planned_JJ economy_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Liberal_JJ society_NN1 was_VBDZ unprepared_JJ to_TO withstand_VVI the_AT &bquo;_" shocks_NN2 &equo;_" of_IO economic_JJ development_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, Van_NP1 Laue_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP ,_, the_AT &bquo;_" shock_NN1 &equo;_" of_IO economic_JJ development_NN1 could_VM be_VBI managed_VVN by_II the_AT Bolsheviks_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 view_NN1 is_VBZ shared_VVN by_II Kochan_NP1 ,_, who_PNQS argues_VVZ that_CST only_RR a_AT1 party_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 highly_RR disciplined_JJ party_NN1 with_IW techniques_NN2 of_IO mass_JJ organisation_NN1 could_VM replace_VVI the_AT autocratic_JJ system_NN1 that_CST held_VVD a_AT1 fractured_JJ empire_NN1 together_RL &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Van_NP1 Laue_NP1 supports_VVZ this_DD1 &mdash;_- ;_; &bquo;_" the_AT Soviets_NN2 proved_VVD what_DDQ seemed_VVD to_TO be_VBI highly_RR effective_JJ solutions_NN2 to_II the_AT crises_NN2 that_CST confronted_VVD the_AT Russian_JJ state_NN1 under_II the_AT Tsars_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Van_NP1 Laue_NP1 's_GE assertions_NN2 about_II the_AT inevitability_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 Bolshevik_JJ revolution_NN1 can_VM in_RR21 part_RR22 be_VBI supported_VVN by_II the_AT revolutionary_JJ theories_NN2 of_IO the_AT Bolsheviks_NN2 themselves_PPX2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
If_CS we_PPIS2 examine_VV0 the_AT revolutionary_JJ theory_NN1 of_IO the_AT Bolsheviks_NN2 we_PPIS2 can_VM see_VVI how_RRQ they_PPHS2 shared_VVD with_IW Van_NP1 Laue_NP1 many_DA2 common_JJ points_NN2 about_II the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO Tsarism_NN1 in_II Russia_NP1 and_CC the_AT crises_NN2 which_DDQ it_PPH1 faced_VVD ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ especially_RR so_RR if_CS we_PPIS2 examine_VV0 Trotsky_NP1 's_GE contribution_NN1 to_II the_AT Bolsheviks_NN2 theory_NN1 of_IO &bquo;_" permanent_JJ revolution_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Like_NP1 Van_NP1 Laue_NP1 ,_, Trotsky_NP1 correlates_VVZ the_AT Russian_JJ and_CC the_AT &bquo;_" global_JJ &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
&bquo;_" For_IF backward_JJ countries_NN2 &equo;_" writes_VVZ Trotsky_NP1 &bquo;_" the_AT road_NN1 to_II democracy_NN1 passed_VVN through_II the_AT dictatorship_NN1 of_IO the_AT proletariat_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR democracy_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 regime_NN1 that_CST remains_VVZ self-sufficient_JJ for_IF decades_NNT2 but_CCB is_VBZ only_RR a_AT1 direct_JJ prelude_NN1 to_II the_AT socialist_JJ revolution_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II other_JJ words_NN2 &bquo;_" the_AT Russian_JJ revolution_NN1 will_VM create_VVI conditions_NN2 in_II which_DDQ power_NN1 can_VM pass_VVI in_RP to_II the_AT hands_NN2 of_IO the_AT workers_NN2 &hellip;_... before_CS the_AT politicians_NN2 of_IO bourgeois_JJ liberalism_NN1 get_VV0 the_AT chance_NN1 to_TO display_VVI to_II the_AT full_JJ their_APPGE talent_NN1 for_IF governing_VVG &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
We_PPIS2 can_VM see_VVI how_RRQ Trotsky_NP1 stressed_VVD the_AT urgency_NN1 of_IO revolution_NN1 before_II a_AT1 middle_JJ class_NN1 developed_VVN out_II21 of_II22 the_AT Tsars_NN2 industrial_JJ program_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR the_AT crises_NN2 that_CST faced_VVD the_AT autocracy_NN1 through_II the_AT alienation_NN1 of_IO the_AT &bquo;_" masses_NN2 &equo;_" was_VBDZ seen_VVN by_II the_AT Bolsheviks_NN2 as_CSA ripe_JJ time_NNT1 to_TO launch_VVI a_AT1 revolution_NN1 before_II the_AT bourgeois_NN had_VHD time_NNT1 to_TO develop_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, Trotsky_NP1 also_RR had_VHN to_TO affirm_VVI that_CST although_CS the_AT Russian_JJ proletariat_NN1 in_II power_NN1 could_VM win_VVI the_AT support_NN1 of_IO the_AT peasantry_NN1 by_II appropriate_JJ measures_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 would_VM be_VBI unable_JK to_TO maintain_VVI itself_PPX1 in_II power_NN1 or_CC pass_VV0 over_RP to_II a_AT1 socialist_JJ regime_NN1 in_II Russia_NP1 &bquo;_" without_IW the_AT direct_JJ state_NN1 support_NN1 of_IO the_AT European_JJ proletariat_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 ,_, Kochan_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP ,_, is_VBZ where_RRQ the_AT theory_NN1 fell_VVD down_RP in_II its_APPGE optimistically_RR erroneous_JJ assessment_NN1 of_IO the_AT prospects_NN2 of_IO revolution_NN1 in_II the_AT Western_JJ World_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Yet_RR ,_, Kochan_NP1 continues_VVZ ,_, if_CS it_PPH1 was_VBDZ not_XX a_AT1 guide_NN1 to_II what_DDQ happened_VVD after_II 1917_MC ,_, it_PPH1 retains_VVZ its_APPGE importance_NN1 as_II a_AT1 dynamic_JJ diagnosis_NN1 of_IO the_AT weakness_NN1 of_IO Tsarism_NN1 and_CC the_AT force_NN1 required_VVN to_TO overthrow_VVI it_PPH1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Did_VDD Tsarism_NN1 show_VV0 any_DD real_JJ signs_NN2 of_IO re-establishing_VVG its_APPGE grip_NN1 on_II Russia_NP1 in_II the_AT period_NN1 after_II the_AT 1905_MC revolution_NN1 ?_? 
</s>
<s>
Russian_JJ Tsarism_NN1 faced_VVD a_AT1 challenge_NN1 of_IO absorbing_VVG new_JJ elements_NN2 of_IO society_NN1 into_II the_AT Russian_JJ social_JJ system_NN1 and_CC dealing_VVG with_IW the_AT political_JJ consequences_NN2 of_IO the_AT economic_JJ change_NN1 it_PPH1 introduced_VVD ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 offered_VVD limited_JJ change_NN1 in_II the_AT October_NPM1 Manifesto_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT creation_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 representative_JJ body_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; the_AT Duma_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, these_DD2 changes_NN2 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN as_CSA largely_RR superficial_JJ of_IO and_CC as_II a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO retaining_VVG the_AT power_NN1 of_IO autocracy_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 as_II a_AT1 genuine_JJ effort_NN1 in_II creating_VVG a_AT1 constitutional_JJ state_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT reductions_NN2 in_II status_NN1 of_IO the_AT Duma_NP1 from_II a_AT1 legislative_JJ to_II a_AT1 consultative_JJ body_NN1 illustrates_VVZ this_DD1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_CSA does_VDZ the_AT negative_JJ attitude_NN1 of_IO the_AT Tsar_NN1 and_CC his_APPGE court_NN1 represented_VVN in_II the_AT council_NN1 chamber_NN1 which_DDQ constantly_RR hedged_VVD the_AT power_NN1 of_IO the_AT Duma_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR Tsarism_NN1 did_VDD show_VVI signs_NN2 of_IO establishing_VVG its_APPGE power_NN1 after_II the_AT 1905_MC revolution_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, its_APPGE failure_NN1 perhaps_RR and_CC inability_NN1 to_TO tackle_VVI the_AT root_NN1 of_IO the_AT problems_NN2 and_CC deal_VV0 with_IW the_AT grievances_NN2 of_IO the_AT masses_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT apparent_JJ blindness_NN1 of_IO the_AT autocracy_NN1 to_II these_DD2 grievances_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ were_VBDR greatly_RR aggravated_VVN by_II war_NN1 increased_VVD the_AT frustrations_NN2 of_IO the_AT masses_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT desire_NN1 for_IF improvement_NN1 in_II economic_JJ conditions_NN2 developed_VVD in_RP to_II a_AT1 demand_NN1 for_IF political_JJ change_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Bolsheviks_NN2 recognised_VVD the_AT crises_NN2 of_IO the_AT autocracy_NN1 and_CC harnessed_VVD there_RL party_NN1 to_II the_AT revolutionary_JJ mood_NN1 of_IO the_AT masses_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Kochan_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP how_RGQ effective_JJ the_AT revolutionary_JJ theory_NN1 of_IO the_AT Bolsheviks_NN2 was_VBDZ in_II recognising_VVG certain_JJ weaknesses_NN2 in_II the_AT Russian_JJ state_NN1 and_CC arising_VVG disciplined_JJ party_NN1 methods_NN2 to_TO overcome_VVI them_PPHO2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT tsar_NN1 failed_VVD to_TO do_VDI anything_PN1 constructive_JJ in_II dealing_VVG with_IW the_AT problems_NN2 of_IO the_AT mass_NN1 of_IO Russian_JJ people_NN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Sir_NNB Arthur_NP1 Nicholson_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 contemporary_JJ observer_NN1 noted_VVD :_: &bquo;_" should_VM the_AT peasants_NN2 excited_VVN by_II socialist_JJ and_CC anarchist_NN1 agitators_NN2 be_VBI led_VVN on_RP &hellip;_... and_CC should_VM the_AT working_JJ classes_NN2 simultaneously_RR rise_VV0 in_II the_AT towns_NN2 there_EX will_VM be_VBI a_AT1 catastrophe_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 history_NN1 has_VHZ rarely_RR witnessed_VVN &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Name_NN1 :_: Kieran_NP1 Lee_NP1 (_( Graeme_NP1 Conn_NP1 )_) Week_NNT1 of_IO Experiment_NN1 :_: Summer_NNT1 term_NN1 ,_, Weeks_NNT2 1-3_MCMC Lab_NN1 :_: Project_NN1 Class_NN1 :_: Wednesday_NPD1 Demonstrator_NP1 :_: Dr._NNB P._NP1 Caryl_NP1 Due_JJ :_: May_NPM1 7th_MD ,_, 1991_MC (_( Extension_NN1 to_II May_NPM1 8th_MD ,_, 1991_MC )_) Submitted_VVD :_: May_NPM1 8th_MD ,_, 1991_MC Hemispheric_JJ Specialisation_NN1 with_IW Subjects_NN2 Presented_VVN with_IW Stimuli_NN2 in_II Either_DD1 Visual_JJ Field_NN1 while_CS Shadowing_VVG Verbal_JJ Material_NN1 University_NN1 undergraduates_NN2 viewed_VVD stimuli_NN2 using_VVG a_AT1 tachistoscope_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 stimuli_NN2 comprised_VVN of_IO verbal_JJ (_( trigram_NNU1 )_) and_CC spatial_JJ (_( dot_NN1 location_NN1 )_) tasks_NN2 with_IW the_AT stimuli_NN2 directed_VVD either_RR to_II the_AT left_JJ or_CC right_RR visual_JJ field_NN1 of_IO the_AT subject_NN1 while_CS s/he_PPHS1 shadowed_VVD auditory_JJ verbal_JJ stimuli_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX is_VBZ evidence_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 for_IF verbal_JJ tasks_NN2 ,_, while_CS visuo-spatial_JJ tasks_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN found_VVN to_TO have_VHI a_AT1 left_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 suggests_VVZ that_CST verbal_JJ ability_NN1 is_VBZ dominant_JJ in_II the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 and_CC spatial_JJ ability_NN1 is_VBZ dominant_JJ in_II the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ expected_VVN that_CST due_II21 to_II22 this_DD1 left_JJ hemispheric_JJ specialisation_NN1 for_IF verbal_JJ ability_NN1 ,_, the_AT right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 would_VM be_VBI reduced_VVN for_IF the_AT trigram_NNU1 task_NN1 when_RRQ subjects_NN2 were_VBDR shadowing_VVG auditory_JJ verbal_JJ material_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT dot_NN1 location_NN1 task_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ involves_VVZ predominantly_RR the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ expected_VVN to_TO remain_VVI unaffected_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_CSA expected_VVN ,_, shadowing_NN1 did_VDD result_VVI in_II a_AT1 significant_JJ reduction_NN1 in_II right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 for_IF the_AT verbal_JJ task_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ ,_, however_RR ,_, also_RR found_VVN to_TO cause_VVI a_AT1 slight_JJ change_NN1 in_II right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 for_IF the_AT visuo-spatial_JJ task_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Introduction_NN1 The_AT human_JJ brain_NN1 is_VBZ divided_VVN in_II half_DB and_CC control_NN1 of_IO the_AT body_NN1 's_GE basic_JJ movements_NN2 and_CC sensations_NN2 is_VBZ evenly_RR divided_VVN between_II the_AT two_MC halves_NN2 ,_, or_CC cerebral_JJ hemispheres_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 occurs_VVZ in_II a_AT1 crossed_JJ fashion_NN1 ,_, with_IW the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 controlling_VVG the_AT right_JJ side_NN1 of_IO the_AT body_NN1 and_CC the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 controlling_VVG the_AT left_JJ side_NN1 of_IO the_AT body_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX is_VBZ asymmetry_NN1 of_IO function_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, between_II the_AT two_MC hemispheres_NN2 as_CSA can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN by_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST very_RG few_DA2 people_NN are_VBR truly_RR ambidextrous_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX is_VBZ usually_RR dominance_NN1 in_II one_MC1 hemisphere_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Historically_RR ,_, clinical_JJ evidence_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT greatest_JJT source_NN1 of_IO research_NN1 into_II differences_NN2 between_II the_AT hemispheres_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
That_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, patients_NN2 who_PNQS have_VH0 suffered_VVN brain_NN1 damage_NN1 to_II one_MC1 of_IO their_APPGE hemispheres_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN used_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO examine_VVI the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 damage_NN1 on_II their_APPGE linguistic_JJ and_CC spatial_JJ abilities_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
More_RGR recently_RR ,_, however_RR ,_, interest_NN1 in_II the_AT left_JJ and_CC right_JJ brain_NN1 is_VBZ due_JJ to_TO work_VVI involving_VVG split-brain_JJ patients_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 patients_NN2 have_VH0 undergone_VVN medical_JJ surgery_NN1 to_TO cut_VVI the_AT cortical_JJ pathways_NN2 ,_, most_RGT notably_RR the_AT corpus_NN1 collosum_NN1 ,_, that_DD1 normally_RR connect_VV0 the_AT hemispheres_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 gives_VVZ researchers_NN2 the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO study_VVI the_AT abilities_NN2 of_IO each_DD1 hemisphere_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 single_JJ brain_NN1 separately_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, Evan_NP1 Zaidel_NP1 has_VHZ developed_VVN a_AT1 device_NN1 known_VVN as_II the_AT Z_NP1 lens_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 contact_NN1 lens_NN1 that_CST permits_VVZ a_AT1 split-brain_JJ patient_NN1 to_TO move_VVI his/her_APPGE eyes_NN2 freely_RR when_CS examining_VVG an_AT1 object_NN1 ,_, but_CCB at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 ensures_VVZ that_CST only_RR one_MC1 hemisphere_NN1 of_IO the_AT patient_NN1 's_GE brain_NN1 receives_VVZ the_AT visual_JJ information_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR ,_, this_DD1 lens_NN1 allows_VVZ the_AT patient_JJ to_TO view_VVI a_AT1 stimulus_NN1 for_IF as_CS31 long_CS32 as_CS33 s/he_PPHS1 desires_VVZ while_CS also_RR enabling_VVG the_AT investigator_NN1 to_TO present_VVI the_AT stimulus_NN1 to_II one_MC1 hemisphere_NN1 alone_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
Of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, this_DD1 apparatus_NN1 would_VM not_XX be_VBI valid_JJ for_IF use_NN1 in_II normal_JJ subjects_NN2 as_II the_AT corpus_NN1 collosum_NN1 would_VM allow_VVI the_AT transfer_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 from_II one_MC1 hemisphere_NN1 to_II the_AT other_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
On_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 split-brain_JJ studies_NN2 ,_, the_AT most_RGT general_JJ statement_NN1 that_CST has_VHZ been_VBN made_VVN about_II right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 specialisation_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST they_PPHS2 are_VBR non-linguistic_JJ functions_NN2 that_CST seem_VV0 to_TO involve_VVI complex_JJ visuo-spatial_JJ processes_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Evidence_NN1 supporting_VVG right-hemisphere_JJ superiority_NN1 includes_VVZ differences_NN2 in_II the_AT abilities_NN2 of_IO the_AT two_MC hands_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 split-brain_JJ patient_NN1 to_TO draw_VVI a_AT1 figure_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 cube_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Invariably_RR ,_, the_AT left_JJ hand_NN1 produces_VVZ a_AT1 better_JJR drawing_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 has_VHZ also_RR been_VBN found_VVN that_CST the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 is_VBZ specialised_VVN for_IF language_NN1 functions_NN2 ,_, but_CCB these_DD2 specialisations_NN2 may_VM be_VBI a_AT1 consequence_NN1 of_IO the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 's_GE superior_JJ analytic_JJ skills_NN2 ,_, of_IO which_DDQ language_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 manifestation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Similarly_RR ,_, the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 's_GE superior_JJ visuo-spatial_JJ performance_NN1 is_VBZ derived_VVN from_II its_APPGE synthetic_JJ ,_, holistic_JJ manner_NN1 of_IO dealing_VVG with_IW information_NN1 with_IW ambiguous_JJ instruction_NN1 simply_RR to_TO match_VVI the_AT similar_JJ stimuli_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Presently_RR ,_, research_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR being_VBG carried_VVN out_RP using_VVG normal_JJ patients_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Due_II21 to_II22 the_AT anatomical_JJ crossing_NN1 described_VVN above_RL ,_, the_AT optic_NN1 nerves_NN2 from_II the_AT right_JJ halves_NN2 of_IO each_DD1 eye_NN1 travel_NN1 to_II the_AT visual_JJ cortex_NN1 in_II the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 and_CC vice-versa_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 ,_, when_CS visual_JJ stimuli_NN2 are_VBR flashed_VVN briefly_RR in_II the_AT left_JJ visual_JJ field_NN1 it_PPH1 projects_VVZ first_MD to_II the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 whereas_CS stimuli_NN2 flashed_VVD in_II the_AT right_JJ visual_JJ field_NN1 project_NN1 initially_RR to_II the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ only_RR true_JJ if_CS the_AT image_NN1 is_VBZ projected_VVN for_IF less_DAR time_NNT1 than_CSN it_PPH1 takes_VVZ for_IF the_AT eye_NN1 to_TO move_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT time_NNT1 required_VVN for_IF an_AT1 eye_NN1 movement_NN1 is_VBZ approximately_RR 150_MC msecs_NN2 ,_, and_CC so_RR if_CS the_AT stimulus_NN1 is_VBZ presented_VVN for_IF less_DAR than_CSN 150_MC msecs_NN2 we_PPIS2 can_VM be_VBI certain_JJ that_CST the_AT image_NN1 is_VBZ projected_VVN only_RR to_II one_MC1 hemisphere_NN1 directly_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
Using_VVG a_AT1 tachistoscope_NN1 and_CC testing_VVG normal_JJ subjects_NN2 it_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN repeatedly_RR shown_VVN that_CST letters_NN2 and_CC words_NN2 presented_VVN in_II the_AT right_JJ visual_JJ field_NN1 are_VBR more_RGR easily_RR identified_VVN than_CSN the_AT same_DA stimuli_NN2 presented_VVN in_II the_AT left_JJ visual_JJ field_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 right_JJ field_NN1 superiority_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN interpreted_VVN as_CSA due_JJ ,_, at_RR21 least_RR22 in_RR21 part_RR22 ,_, to_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST stimuli_NN2 presented_VVN to_II the_AT right_JJ visual_JJ field_NN1 will_VM have_VHI readier_JJR access_NN1 to_II regions_NN2 of_IO the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 specialised_VVN for_IF the_AT reception_NN1 of_IO verbal_JJ stimuli_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 has_VHZ also_RR been_VBN proposed_VVN that_CST stimuli_NN2 where_RRQ accurate_JJ detection_NN1 rests_VVZ on_II some_DD form_NN1 of_IO visuo-spatial_JJ ability_NN1 are_VBR better_RRR perceived_VVN when_CS projected_VVN to_II the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Conn_NP1 and_CC Lee_NP1 (_( 1991_MC )_) confirmed_VVD these_DD2 findings_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_RR21 addition_RR22 ,_, they_PPHS2 found_VVD differences_NN2 in_II lateralisation_NN1 between_II men_NN2 and_CC women_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 experiment_NN1 hypothesises_VVZ that_CST when_CS shadowing_VVG verbal_JJ material_NN1 ,_, tasks_NN2 using_VVG the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI affected_VVN than_CSN those_DD2 using_VVG the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Design_NN1 :_: The_AT accuracy_NN1 of_IO response_NN1 to_II verbal_JJ and_CC spatial_JJ stimuli_NN2 which_DDQ were_VBDR projected_VVN using_VVG a_AT1 tachistoscope_NN1 was_VBDZ measured_VVN with_IW and_CC without_IW subjects_NN2 shadowing_VVG verbal_JJ material_NN1 ,_, using_VVG a_AT1 between_II subjects_NN2 design_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Subjects_NN2 :_: 17_MC undergraduate_NN1 students_NN2 at_II the_AT University_NN1 of_IO Edinburgh_NP1 and_CC Queen_NNB Margaret_NP1 College_NN1 &lsqb;_( 71_MC subjects_NN2 from_II a_AT1 previous_JJ study_NN1 (_( Conn_NP1 and_CC Lee_NP1 1991_MC )_) &rsqb;_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
Materials_NN2 :_: A_AT1 tachistoscope_NN1 and_CC two_MC different_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO stimulus_NN1 materials_NN2 :_: CVC_NP1 Trigrams_NP1 (_( 32_MC card_NN1 set_NN1 )_) :_: 6x4_FO cards_NN2 on_II which_DDQ are_VBR printed_VVN ,_, either_RR to_II the_AT left_JJ or_CC right_NN1 of_IO the_AT centre_NN1 point_NN1 by_II approximately_RR 1.5_MC cms_NNU2 ,_, trigrams_NNU2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II each_DD1 set_NN1 there_EX were_VBDR 16_MC trigrams_NNU2 appearing_VVG on_II the_AT left_JJ and_CC 16_MC trigrams_NNU2 appearing_VVG on_II the_AT right_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Dot_NN1 Location_NN1 (_( 32_MC card_NN1 set_NN1 )_) :_: Cards_NN2 on_II which_DDQ a_AT1 single_JJ dot_NN1 appears_VVZ either_RR to_II the_AT left_JJ or_CC right_NN1 of_IO the_AT centre_NN1 ,_, and_CC which_DDQ appears_VVZ in_II any_DD of_IO 16_MC positions_NN2 ._. 
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A_AT1 key_JJ card_NN1 numbering_VVG the_AT various_JJ positions_NN2 was_VBDZ mounted_VVN on_II the_AT top_NN1 of_IO the_AT tachistoscope_NN1 ._. 
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Procedure_NN1 :_: Seventeen_MC subjects_NN2 were_VBDR tested_VVN with_IW both_DB2 the_AT verbal_JJ task_NN1 (_( trigrams_NNU2 )_) and_CC the_AT visuo-spatial_JJ task_NN1 (_( dot_NN1 location_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC in_RR21 addition_RR22 were_VBDR asked_VVN to_TO shadow_VVI an_AT1 excerpt_NN1 from_II &bquo;_" The_AT Real_JJ Frank_NP1 Zappa_NP1 Story_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
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For_IF the_AT location_NN1 task_NN1 ,_, fixation_NN1 cards_NN2 with_IW two_MC half_DB square_JJ fields_NN2 on_II them_PPHO2 were_VBDR used_VVN ._. 
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<s>
After_CS each_DD1 trial_NN1 ,_, the_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ asked_VVN to_TO write_VVI the_AT position_NN1 of_IO the_AT dot_NN1 according_II21 to_II22 grid_NN1 numbers_NN2 mounted_VVN on_II the_AT tachistoscope_NN1 ._. 
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For_IF the_AT trigram_NNU1 task_NN1 ,_, fixation_NN1 cards_NN2 with_IW a_AT1 central_JJ +_FO were_VBDR used_VVN ._. 
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<s>
After_CS each_DD1 trial_NN1 ,_, the_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ asked_VVN to_TO write_VVI the_AT trigram_NNU1 ._. 
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The_AT score_NN1 for_IF each_DD1 trial_NN1 was_VBDZ the_AT number_NN1 of_IO correct_JJ letters_NN2 of_IO the_AT trigram_NNU1 given_JJ in_II the_AT right_JJ position_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT cards_NN2 were_VBDR presented_VVN in_II a_AT1 random_JJ sequence_NN1 using_VVG examples_NN2 from_II the_AT Gelleman_NN1 Series_NN ,_, which_DDQ avoids_VVZ long_JJ runs_NN2 of_IO identical_JJ R_ZZ1 or_CC L_ZZ1 stimuli_NN2 ,_, given_VVN below_RL :_: When_CS sorting_VVG the_AT stimulus_NN1 cards_NN2 into_II order_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ ensured_VVN that_CST subjects_NN2 could_VM not_XX see_VVI the_AT cards_NN2 ._. 
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During_II the_AT run_NN1 ,_, each_DD1 subject_NN1 wrote_VVD their_APPGE answers_NN2 on_II a_AT1 answer_NN1 sheet_NN1 provided_VVN by_II the_AT experimenter_NN1 ._. 
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Results_NN2 :_: The_AT difference_NN1 in_II the_AT degree_NN1 of_IO lateralisation_NN1 for_IF each_DD1 task_NN1 when_CS performed_VVN without_IW and_CC with_IW shadowing_NN1 was_VBDZ compared_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO see_VVI if_CSW there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 reduction_NN1 in_II right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 for_IF trigrams_NNU2 while_CS dot_NN1 location_NN1 remained_VVD unaffected_JJ ._. 
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<s>
As_CSA one_MC1 of_IO the_AT two_MC tasks_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, may_VM be_VBI simply_RR easier_JJR by_II nature_NN1 than_CSN the_AT other_JJ the_AT result_NN1 may_VM be_VBI affected_VVN because_CS ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ easier_JJR to_TO recognise_VVI and_CC report_VVI the_AT location_NN1 of_IO dots_NN2 than_CSN trigrams_NNU2 ._. 
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The_AT dichotic_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO the_AT tasks_NN2 when_CS performed_VVN with_IW shadowing_VVG may_VM also_RR cause_VVI slight_JJ reductions_NN2 in_II both_DB2 visual_JJ fields_NN2 for_IF both_DB2 tasks_NN2 ._. 
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The_AT Right_JJ Field_NN1 Advantage_NN1 ,_, RFA_NP1 ,_, for_IF each_DD1 stimulus_NN1 type_NN1 was_VBDZ calculated_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO indicate_VVI the_AT relative_JJ performance_NN1 in_II each_DD1 visual_JJ field_NN1 for_IF each_DD1 task_NN1 ._. 
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The_AT RFA_NN1 for_IF each_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO stimulus_NN1 material_NN1 was_VBDZ calculated_VVN using_VVG The_AT RFAs_NP2 calculated_VVD for_IF each_DD1 stimulus_NN1 are_VBR shown_VVN in_II Table_NN1 1_MC1 and_CC Table_NN1 2_MC for_IF the_AT subjects_NN2 performing_VVG the_AT task_NN1 with_IW and_CC without_IW shadowing_VVG respectively_RR ._. 
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<s>
The_AT results_NN2 given_VVN for_IF the_AT tasks_NN2 without_IW shadowing_VVG are_VBR from_II the_AT work_NN1 done_VDN by_II Conn_NP1 and_CC Lee_NP1 (_( 1991_MC )_) ,_, with_IW 71_MC subjects_NN2 performing_VVG identical_JJ dot_NN1 location_NN1 and_CC trigram_NNU1 tasks_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT results_NN2 in_II Table_NN1 3_MC show_VV0 that_DD1 shadowing_NN1 of_IO verbal_JJ material_NN1 causes_VVZ an_AT1 extremely_RR significant_JJ reduction_NN1 in_II RFA_NN1 for_IF the_AT trigram_NNU1 task_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ not_XX expected_VVN that_CST there_EX would_VM be_VBI any_DD effect_NN1 on_II dot_NN1 location_NN1 by_II the_AT shadowing_NN1 ._. 
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There_EX was_VBDZ ,_, however_RR ,_, a_AT1 slightly_RR significant_JJ increase_NN1 in_II right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Discussion_NN1 From_II the_AT results_NN2 in_II Conn_NP1 and_CC Lee_NP1 (_( 1991_MC )_) we_PPIS2 see_VV0 that_CST subjects_NN2 more_RGR accurately_RR recognised_JJ trigrams_NNU2 presented_VVN on_II a_AT1 card_NN1 when_RRQ the_AT material_NN1 is_VBZ presented_VVN to_II the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 supports_VVZ the_AT hypothesis_NN1 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 for_IF verbal_JJ ability_NN1 over_II spatial_JJ ability_NN1 ._. 
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This_DD1 right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 reflects_VVZ left-hemisphere_JJ specialisation_NN1 for_IF language_NN1 functions_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT significant_JJ lack_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 advantage_NN1 in_II the_AT tasks_NN2 of_IO dot_NN1 location_NN1 reflects_VVZ right-hemisphere_JJ specialisation_NN1 for_IF the_AT processing_NN1 of_IO visuo-spatial_JJ stimuli_NN2 ._. 
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The_AT results_NN2 in_II Table_NN1 3_MC show_VV0 that_CST shadowing_VVG verbal_JJ material_NN1 causes_VVZ greater_JJR reduction_NN1 in_II right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 with_IW the_AT verbal_JJ than_CSN the_AT spatial_JJ tasks_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ because_CS both_DB2 recognition_NN1 of_IO the_AT trigram_NNU1 and_CC comprehension_NN1 of_IO the_AT passage_NN1 being_VBG shadowed_VVN involve_VV0 linguistic_JJ ability_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ specialised_VVN in_II the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
There_EX was_VBDZ also_RR found_VVN to_TO be_VBI some_DD increase_NN1 in_II right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 for_IF dot_NN1 location_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ that_CST this_DD1 unexpected_JJ increase_NN1 may_VM not_XX have_VHI occurred_VVN if_CS a_AT1 greater_JJR number_NN1 of_IO subjects_NN2 had_VHD been_VBN used_VVN for_IF the_AT shadowing_JJ tasks_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT use_NN1 of_IO the_AT same_DA subjects_NN2 both_RR when_CS shadowing_VVG was_VBDZ and_CC was_VBDZ not_XX involved_VVN may_VM also_RR have_VHI altered_VVN this_DD1 result_NN1 by_II accounting_VVG for_IF any_DD individual_JJ anomalies_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
A_AT1 study_NN1 to_TO investigate_VVI similar_JJ effects_NN2 for_IF the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 was_VBDZ originally_RR considered_VVN as_II part_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 work_NN1 ,_, but_CCB was_VBDZ abandoned_VVN due_JJ to_TO lack_VVI of_IO availability_NN1 of_IO subjects_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 study_NN1 involves_VVZ asking_VVG subjects_NN2 to_TO perform_VVI the_AT dot_NN1 location_NN1 task_NN1 and_CC another_DD1 task_NN1 accessing_VVG the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 simultaneously_RR to_TO look_VVI for_IF reduction_NN1 in_II left_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 for_IF the_AT dot_NN1 location_NN1 task_NN1 a_AT1 result_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 could_VM be_VBI done_VDN by_II asking_VVG subjects_NN2 to_TO listen_VVI to_II and_CC hum_VVI back_RP music_NN1 while_CS performing_VVG the_AT dot_NN1 location_NN1 task_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Response_NN1 to_II music_NN1 is_VBZ believed_VVN to_TO be_VBI dominant_JJ in_II the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 and_CC as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 would_VM be_VBI expected_VVN to_TO exact_VVI a_AT1 similar_JJ reduction_NN1 in_II left_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 to_II that_DD1 found_VVD for_IF right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 in_II the_AT trigram_NNU1 tasks_NN2 discussed_VVN here_RL ._. 
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<s>
Other_JJ variables_NN2 could_VM also_RR be_VBI isolated_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO examine_VVI their_APPGE influence_NN1 on_II hemispherical_JJ asymmetry_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
These_DD2 include_VV0 handedness_NN1 ,_, familial_JJ sinistrality_NN1 ,_, depression_NN1 ,_, anxiety_NN1 ,_, schizophrenia_NN1 ,_, fatigue_NN1 ,_, age_NN1 ,_, smoking_VVG ,_, and_CC ._. 
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<s>
Name_NN1 :_: Kieran_NP1 Lee_NP1 (_( Graeme_NP1 Conn_NP1 )_) Week_NNT1 of_IO Experiment_NN1 :_: Autumn_NNT1 term_NN1 ,_, Week_NNT1 4_MC Lab_NN1 :_: Memory_NN1 Class_NN1 :_: Wednesday_NPD1 Demonstrator_NP1 :_: Dr._NNB P._NP1 Caryl_NP1 Due_JJ :_: November_NPM1 14th_MD ,_, 1990_MC Submitted_VVD :_: November_NPM1 14th_MD ,_, 1990_MC The_AT Effects_NN2 of_IO Serial_JJ Position_NN1 and_CC Time_NNT1 Delay_NN1 on_II Recall_NN1 University_NN1 undergraduates_NN2 listened_VVN to_II a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 and_CC were_VBDR required_VVN to_TO recall_VVI as_RG many_DA2 of_IO these_DD2 words_NN2 as_CSA possible_JJ in_II any_DD order_NN1 they_PPHS2 wished_VVD ,_, either_RR immediately_RR or_CC after_II a_AT1 delay_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Undergraduates_NN2 were_VBDR also_RR given_VVN groups_NN2 of_IO consonants_NN2 and_CC asked_VVN to_TO recall_VVI as_RG many_DA2 as_CSA possible_JJ in_II their_APPGE correct_JJ position_NN1 after_II various_JJ time_NNT1 delays_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
In_II the_AT first_MD case_NN1 ,_, the_AT delay_NN1 was_VBDZ expected_VVN to_TO prevent_VVI further_JJR rehearsal_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 late_RR in_II the_AT word_NN1 list_NN1 and_CC as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 reduce_VV0 the_AT chance_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE recall_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ found_VVN that_DD1 recall_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 at_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO the_AT list_NN1 was_VBDZ indeed_RR significantly_RR greater_JJR than_CSN when_CS recall_NN1 was_VBDZ immediate_JJ and_CC this_DD1 gave_VVD rise_NN1 to_II the_AT phenomenon_NN1 known_VVN as_II the_AT recency_NN1 effect_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
A_AT1 primacy_NN1 effect_NN1 was_VBDZ also_RR found_VVN for_IF recall_NN1 ,_, both_RR when_CS recall_NN1 was_VBDZ immediate_JJ and_CC delayed_VVD indicating_VVG a_AT1 distinction_NN1 between_II a_AT1 short-term_JJ and_CC long-term_JJ memory_NN1 store_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
In_II the_AT second_MD case_NN1 ,_, the_AT number_NN1 of_IO consonants_NN2 recalled_VVD was_VBDZ expected_VVN to_TO decrease_VVI as_II the_AT delay_NN1 increased_VVD ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 was_VBDZ ,_, in_II fact_NN1 ,_, found_VVD to_TO be_VBI so_RR and_CC the_AT results_NN2 were_VBDR interpreted_VVN to_TO show_VVI that_DD1 short_JJ term_NN1 memory_NN1 decayed_VVN after_CS about_RG 20_MC seconds_NNT2 ._. 
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<s>
Introduction_NN1 The_AT study_NN1 of_IO recall_NN1 over_II time_NNT1 has_VHZ been_VBN used_VVN to_TO find_VVI whether_CSW there_EX are_VBR separate_JJ system_NN1 underlying_VVG short-term_JJ and_CC long-term_JJ memory_NN1 or_CC only_RR one_MC1 system_NN1 functioning_VVG at_II different_JJ levels_NN2 (_( Baddeley_NP1 ,_, 1976_MC )_) ._. 
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<s>
The_AT present_JJ research_NN1 was_VBDZ carried_VVN out_RP to_TO investigate_VVI the_AT decay_NN1 of_IO short-term_JJ memory_NN1 and_CC show_VV0 that_DD1 rehearsal_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 item_NN1 increases_VVZ the_AT likelihood_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE recall_NN1 ._. 
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This_DD1 can_VM be_VBI shown_VVN in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT recency_NN1 and_CC primacy_NN1 effect_NN1 respectively_RR ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 can_VM be_VBI described_VVN using_VVG the_AT conceptualisation_NN1 of_IO memory_NN1 shown_VVN over_RP :_: The_AT primacy_NN1 effect_NN1 is_VBZ thought_VVN to_TO reflect_VVI the_AT operation_NN1 of_IO secondary_JJ memory_NN1 ,_, i.e._REX recall_VV0 from_II a_AT1 long-term_JJ memory_NN1 store_NN1 while_CS the_AT recency_NN1 effect_NN1 is_VBZ believed_VVN to_TO reflect_VVI the_AT operation_NN1 of_IO primary_JJ memory_NN1 ,_, i.e_REX recall_VV0 from_II a_AT1 short-term_JJ memory_NN1 store_NN1 (_( Bernstein_NP1 et_RA21 al_RA22 ,_, 1988_MC )_) ._. 
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<s>
The_AT experiments_NN2 were_VBDR performed_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO test_VVI for_IF the_AT following_JJ experimental_JJ hypotheses_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
For_IF subjects_NN2 given_VVN a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 ,_, when_CS recall_NN1 is_VBZ immediate_JJ words_NN2 with_IW serial_JJ positions_NN2 late_RR in_II the_AT list_NN1 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI recalled_VVN than_CSN when_CS recall_NN1 is_VBZ delayed_VVN ._. 
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<s>
If_CS subjects_NN2 are_VBR given_VVN a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 ,_, words_NN2 with_IW serial_JJ positions_NN2 early_RR in_II the_AT list_NN1 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI recalled_VVN than_CSN those_DD2 further_JJR towards_II the_AT middle_NN1 of_IO the_AT list_NN1 ._. 
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Also_RR ,_, short_JJ term_NN1 memory_NN1 decays_VVZ over_RP a_AT1 period_NN1 of_IO time_NNT1 ._. 
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<s>
Experiment_VV0 1_MC1 :_: Serial_JJ position_NN1 effects_NN2 on_II recall_NN1 Design_NN1 :_: The_AT number_NN1 of_IO items_NN2 recalled_VVN from_II a_AT1 certain_JJ position_NN1 in_II a_AT1 list_NN1 over_II successive_JJ trials_NN2 was_VBDZ measured_VVN ,_, where_CS recall_NN1 was_VBDZ immediate_JJ or_CC delayed_VVD ,_, using_VVG a_AT1 between_II subjects_NN2 design_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Subjects_NN2 :_: Thirty-four_MC second-year_JJ psychology_NN1 undergraduates_NN2 at_II the_AT University_NN1 of_IO Edinburgh_NP1 ._. 
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<s>
Materials_NN2 :_: Word_NN1 lists_NN2 (_( one_MC1 for_IF testing_VVG immediate_JJ recall_NN1 (_( set_VV0 A_ZZ1 )_) and_CC one_PN1 for_IF testing_VVG delayed_JJ recall_NN1 (_( set_VV0 B_ZZ1 )_) )_) ._. 
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Procedure_NN1 :_: Immediate_JJ Recall_NN1 Subjects_NN2 were_VBDR divided_VVN into_II two_MC groups_NN2 of_IO 17_MC ._. 
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One_MC1 member_NN1 of_IO each_DD1 group_NN1 was_VBDZ assigned_VVN a_AT1 partner_NN1 from_II the_AT other_JJ group_NN1 ._. 
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Each_DD1 pair_NN was_VBDZ then_RT placed_VVN in_II an_AT1 isolated_JJ cubicle_NN1 ._. 
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One_MC1 member_NN1 of_IO the_AT pair_NN was_VBDZ told_VVN by_II his/her_APPGE partner_NN1 &bquo;_" I_PPIS1 am_VBM going_VVGK to_TO read_VVI out_RP a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 to_II you_PPY ._. 
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When_CS I_PPIS1 have_VH0 finished_VVN reading_VVG out_RP the_AT list_NN1 ,_, I_PPIS1 shall_VM tap_VVI on_II the_AT table_NN1 ._. 
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I_PPIS1 then_RT want_VV0 you_PPY to_TO write_VVI down_RP as_RG many_DA2 of_IO the_AT words_NN2 as_CSA you_PPY can_VM remember_VVI and_CC in_II any_DD order_NN1 you_PPY wish_VV0 ._. 
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You_PPY will_VM have_VHI 90_MC seconds_NNT2 to_TO recall_VVI the_AT word_NN1 list_NN1 ._. 
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Then_RT we_PPIS2 will_VM start_VVI another_DD1 trial_NN1 ._. &equo;_" 
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Word_NN1 Set_NN1 A_ZZ1 was_VBDZ provided_VVN for_IF these_DD2 trials_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Fifteen_MC seconds_NNT2 was_VBDZ given_VVN between_II trials_NN2 in_II which_DDQ the_AT subject_NN1 folded_VVN over_II the_AT the_AT piece_NN1 of_IO paper_NN1 on_II which_DDQ s/he_PPHS1 had_VHD recalled_VVN the_AT word_NN1 list_NN1 and_CC wrote_VVN the_AT number_NN1 of_IO the_AT trial_NN1 on_II the_AT paper_NN1 ._. 
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Twelve_MC such_DA trials_NN2 were_VBDR carried_VVN out_RP ._. 
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Delayed_JJ Recall_NN1 In_II each_DD1 pair_NN ,_, experimenter_NN1 and_CC subject_NN1 swapped_VVD roles_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT same_DA procedure_NN1 was_VBDZ adopted_VVN as_CSA for_IF the_AT immediate_JJ recall_NN1 part_NN1 of_IO the_AT experiment_NN1 but_CCB words_NN2 were_VBDR used_VVN from_II set_NN1 B._NP1 However_RR ,_, before_CS the_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ allowed_VVN to_TO recall_VVI the_AT words_NN2 an_AT1 arbitrary_JJ three_MC digit_NN1 number_NN1 ,_, provided_VVN below_II the_AT word_NN1 list_NN1 for_IF each_DD1 trial_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ given_VVN to_II the_AT subject_NN1 and_CC the_AT subject_NN1 asked_VVD to_TO repeat_VVI the_AT number_NN1 and_CC count_VVI backwards_RL by_II threes_MC2 as_RG fast_RR as_CSA they_PPHS2 could_VM for_IF thirty_MC seconds_NNT2 ._. 
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<s>
Scoring_NN1 recall_VV0 :_: For_IF both_DB2 parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT experiment_NN1 ,_, for_IF each_DD1 trial_NN1 (_( represented_VVN by_II columns_NN2 1_MC1 to_II 12_MC in_II each_DD1 word_NN1 list_NN1 )_) ,_, the_AT experimenter_NN1 simply_RR ticked_VVD each_DD1 word_NN1 correctly_RR recalled_VVN and_CC totalled_VVN the_AT number_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 recalled_VVN for_IF each_DD1 of_IO the_AT 20_MC serial_JJ positions_NN2 ._. 
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As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 20_MC scores_NN2 were_VBDR obtained_VVN for_IF each_DD1 part_NN1 of_IO the_AT experiment_NN1 ,_, each_DD1 between_II one_MC1 and_CC twelve_MC ._. 
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<s>
Results_NN2 :_: Table_NN1 1_MC1 and_CC Table_NN1 2_MC show_VV0 the_AT means_NN and_CC standard_JJ deviations_NN2 for_IF recall_NN1 by_II serial_JJ position_NN1 when_CS recall_NN1 was_VBDZ immediate_JJ and_CC delayed_VVD respectively_RR ._. 
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<s>
Fig_NN1 1_MC1 shows_VVZ the_AT mean_JJ probability_NN1 of_IO recall_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 word_NN1 plotted_VVN against_II its_APPGE serial_JJ position_NN1 in_II the_AT word_NN1 list_NN1 when_CS recall_NN1 is_VBZ immediate_JJ and_CC delayed_VVD ._. 
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<s>
From_II this_DD1 graph_NN1 it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN that_CST recall_VV0 values_NN2 are_VBR generally_RR higher_JJR towards_II the_AT beginning_NN1 and_CC end_NN1 of_IO the_AT word_NN1 list_NN1 when_CS recall_NN1 is_VBZ immediate_JJ and_CC that_CST the_AT latter_DA recency_NN1 effect_NN1 is_VBZ absent_JJ when_CS recall_NN1 is_VBZ delayed_VVN &hellip;_... 
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<s>
Respective_JJ values_NN2 for_IF the_AT later_JJR serial_NN1 positions_NN2 were_VBDR compared_VVN between_II the_AT two_MC groups_NN2 to_TO test_VVI for_IF the_AT recency_NN1 effect_NN1 produced_VVN in_II the_AT first_MD group_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Table_NN1 3_MC shows_NN2 recall_VV0 to_TO be_VBI significantly_RR greater_JJR for_IF the_AT last_MD five_MC words_NN2 in_II the_AT list_NN1 when_CS recall_NN1 is_VBZ immediate_JJ and_CC thus_RR supports_VVZ the_AT recency_NN1 effect_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
From_II the_AT information_NN1 in_II Table_NN1 3_MC find_VV0 that_CST recall_VV0 is_VBZ fairly_RR stable_JJ until_CS at_RR21 least_RR22 the_AT 14th_MD word_NN1 when_CS recall_NN1 is_VBZ immediate_JJ ._. 
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<s>
To_TO find_VVI an_AT1 estimate_NN1 of_IO the_AT point_NN1 when_CS recall_NN1 is_VBZ worst_JJT ,_, take_VV0 the_AT middle_NN1 of_IO the_AT word_NN1 list_NN1 to_TO be_VBI serial_JJ position_NN1 10_MC ._. 
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<s>
Approximating_VVG from_II the_AT curve_NN1 that_CST recall_VV0 is_VBZ reasonably_RR level_JJ from_II serial_JJ position_NN1 8_MC ,_, can_VM calculate_VVI a_AT1 &bquo;_" mean_JJ low_JJ &equo;_" value_NN1 for_IF recall_NN1 :_: This_DD1 value_NN1 was_VBDZ compared_VVN with_IW recall_NN1 values_NN2 for_IF early_JJ serial_JJ positions_NN2 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO test_VVI for_IF the_AT primacy_NN1 effect_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Table_NN1 4_MC supports_VVZ the_AT primacy_NN1 effect_NN1 as_CSA recall_NN1 is_VBZ significantly_RR greater_JJR for_IF the_AT first_MD three_MC words_NN2 in_II the_AT list_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Experiment_NN1 2_MC :_: Design_NN1 :_: The_AT number_NN1 of_IO consonants_NN2 in_II a_AT1 four-consonant_JJ sequence_NN1 recalled_VVN after_II varying_JJ periods_NN2 of_IO time_NNT1 ,_, using_VVG a_AT1 within_II subjects_NN2 design_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Subjects_NN2 :_: Twelve_MC undergraduates_NN2 at_II the_AT University_NN1 of_IO Edinburgh_NP1 and_CC Queen_NNB Margaret_NP1 College_NN1 Procedure_NN1 :_: Twelve_MC subjects_NN2 were_VBDR individually_RR given_VVN a_AT1 four-consonant_JJ sequence_NN1 and_CC an_AT1 arbitrary_JJ number_NN1 to_TO count_VVI backwards_RL from_II in_II threes_MC2 as_RG fast_RR as_CSA they_PPHS2 could_VM before_CS they_PPHS2 were_VBDR given_VVN the_AT signal_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Upon_II the_AT signal_NN1 ,_, the_AT subjects_NN2 were_VBDR asked_VVN to_TO recall_VVI as_RG many_DA2 consonants_NN2 in_II their_APPGE correct_JJ places_NN2 as_CSA possible_JJ ._. 
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<s>
The_AT subjects_NN2 were_VBDR tested_VVN using_VVG items_NN2 on_II the_AT list_NN1 given_VVN in_II Appendix_NN1 A._NP1 A_ZZ1 period_NN1 of_IO 15_MC seconds_NNT2 was_VBDZ allowed_VVN between_II trials_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Each_DD1 subject_NN1 completed_VVD a_AT1 total_NN1 of_IO 18_MC trials_NN2 ;_; covering_VVG six_MC time_NNT1 delays_NN2 with_IW three_MC trials_NN2 each_DD1 ._. 
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<s>
A_AT1 period_NN1 of_IO just_RR a_AT1 few_DA2 seconds_NNT2 was_VBDZ allowed_VVN for_IF recall_NN1 and_CC if_CS they_PPHS2 could_VM recall_VVI only_RR one_MC1 or_CC two_MC letters_NN2 the_AT subjects_NN2 were_VBDR asked_VVN to_TO specify_VVI their_APPGE position_NN1 in_II the_AT sequence_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Delay_NN1 times_NNT2 were_VBDR rearranged_VVN for_IF the_AT consonant_JJ groups_NN2 in_II the_AT list_NN1 for_IF each_DD1 trial_NN1 so_CS21 that_CS22 particular_JJ consonant_JJ groups_NN2 were_VBDR not_XX always_RR associated_VVN with_IW the_AT same_DA delay_NN1 time_NNT1 ._. 
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<s>
Scoring_NN1 :_: One_MC1 point_NN1 was_VBDZ computed_VVN for_IF each_DD1 letter_NN1 that_CST was_VBDZ correctly_RR recalled_VVN in_II the_AT correct_JJ place_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
If_CS a_AT1 letter_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX in_II its_APPGE correct_JJ place_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ not_XX counted_VVN ._. 
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<s>
All_DB the_AT scores_NN2 for_IF the_AT trials_NN2 which_DDQ involved_VVD the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 delay_NN1 were_VBDR totalled_VVN up_RP ._. 
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<s>
The_AT mean_JJ number_NN1 of_IO letters_NN2 recalled_VVN across_II the_AT 12_MC subjects_NN2 for_IF each_DD1 time_NNT1 delay_NN1 was_VBDZ then_RT calculated_VVN ._. 
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<s>
Results_NN2 :_: Table_NN1 5_MC shows_VVZ the_AT mean_JJ and_CC standard_JJ deviation_NN1 values_NN2 for_IF recall_NN1 of_IO the_AT letters_NN2 in_II the_AT consonants-groups_NN2 by_II the_AT subjects_NN2 after_II varying_JJ delays_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT number_NN1 of_IO letters_NN2 in_II the_AT consonant-group_NN1 recalled_VVN after_II 0_MC seconds_NNT2 was_VBDZ compared_VVN with_IW recall_NN1 after_II longer_JJR delays_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Also_RR ,_, the_AT number_NN1 of_IO letters_NN2 recalled_VVN after_II 45_MC seconds_NNT2 was_VBDZ compared_VVN with_IW recall_NN1 after_II smaller_JJR delays_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
From_II Table_NN1 6_MC and_CC Table_NN1 7_MC ,_, we_PPIS2 see_VV0 that_CST short-term_JJ memory_NN1 has_VHZ already_RR started_VVN to_TO decay_VVI after_II 15_MC seconds_NNT2 ,_, but_CCB has_VHZ not_XX completely_RR decayed_VVN until_CS somewhere_RL between_II 15_MC and_CC 25_MC seconds_NNT2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 decay_NN1 can_VM also_RR be_VBI seen_VVN in_II Fig_NN1 2_MC ,_, which_DDQ shows_VVZ the_AT probability_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 single_JJ letter_NN1 being_VBG recalled_VVN in_II its_APPGE correct_JJ position_NN1 after_II various_JJ time_NNT1 delays_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Anomalies_NN2 indicated_VVN by_II the_AT large_JJ standard_JJ deviations_NN2 in_II Table_NN1 5_MC for_IF the_AT larger_JJR time_NNT1 delays_NN2 could_VM be_VBI attributed_VVN to_II some_DD of_IO the_AT subjects_NN2 attempting_VVG to_TO rehearse_VVI the_AT letters_NN2 using_VVG some_DD mnemonic_JJ technique_NN1 while_CS performing_VVG the_AT distractive_JJ task_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Discussion_NN1 Words_NN2 which_DDQ appear_VV0 early_RR in_II the_AT lists_NN2 were_VBDR remembered_VVN more_RGR easily_RR as_CSA the_AT subjects_NN2 had_VHD more_DAR opportunity_NN1 to_TO rehearse_VVI these_DD2 after_II being_VBG read_VVN than_CSN the_AT rest_NN1 of_IO the_AT words_NN2 in_II the_AT list_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Thus_RR they_PPHS2 have_VH0 been_VBN re-encoded_VVN into_II long-term_JJ memory_NN1 and_CC this_DD1 gives_VVZ rise_NN1 to_II the_AT primacy_NN1 effect_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Words_NN2 which_DDQ appear_VV0 late_RR in_II the_AT list_NN1 are_VBR remembered_VVN easily_RR when_CS recall_NN1 is_VBZ immediate_JJ as_CSA they_PPHS2 are_VBR resident_JJ in_II short-term_JJ memory_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ not_XX had_VHN a_AT1 chance_NN1 to_TO decay_VVI ._. 
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<s>
When_CS recall_NN1 is_VBZ delayed_VVN by_II 30_MC seconds_NNT2 ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR not_XX remembered_VVN very_RG easily_RR as_CSA short-term_JJ memory_NN1 has_VHZ had_VHN sufficient_JJ chance_NN1 to_TO decay_VVI as_RG short-term_JJ memory_NN1 seems_VVZ to_TO decay_VVI after_II twenty_MC or_CC so_RR seconds_NNT2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 supports_VVZ the_AT presence_NN1 of_IO distinct_JJ primary_NN1 and_CC secondary_JJ memory_NN1 stores_NN2 rather_II21 than_II22 a_AT1 unitary_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Name_NN1 :_: Kieran_NP1 Lee_NP1 (_( Graeme_NP1 Conn_NP1 )_) Week_NNT1 of_IO Experiment_NN1 :_: Autumn_NNT1 term_NN1 ,_, Week_NNT1 6_MC Lab_NN1 :_: Prismatic_JJ Adaptation_NN1 Class_NN1 :_: Wednesday_NPD1 Demonstrator_NP1 :_: Dr._NNB P._NP1 Caryl_NP1 Due_JJ :_: November_NPM1 28th_MD ,_, 1990_MC (_( Extension_NN1 :_: November_NPM1 30th_MD )_) Submitted_VVD :_: November_NPM1 30th_MD ,_, 1990_MC Adaptation_NN1 to_II Prismatic_JJ Distortion_NN1 Due_II21 to_II22 Visual_JJ or_CC Proprioceptive_JJ Change_NN1 University_NN1 undergraduates_NN2 pointed_VVN to_II targets_NN2 under_II a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO conditions_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
These_DD2 were_VBDR primarily_RR pointing_VVG with_IW normal_JJ vision_NN1 and_CC while_CS wearing_VVG prisms_NN2 ,_, using_VVG the_AT preferred_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, before_CS and_CC after_II an_AT1 adaptation_NN1 period_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Before_CS and_CC after_CS this_DD1 period_NN1 ,_, subjects_NN2 also_RR pointed_VVN either_RR at_II an_AT1 auditory_JJ target_NN1 or_CC using_VVG a_AT1 non-preferred_JJ hand_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO identify_VVI the_AT mechanism_NN1 by_II which_DDQ this_DD1 adaptation_NN1 occurred_VVD ._. 
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<s>
Adaptation_NN1 was_VBDZ expected_VVN to_TO be_VBI the_AT result_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 change_NN1 in_II visual_JJ perception_NN1 or_CC the_AT proprioceptive_JJ sense_NN1 of_IO the_AT arm_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT results_NN2 were_VBDR contradictory_JJ and_CC thus_RR neither_DD1 hypothesis_NN1 was_VBDZ supported_VVN ._. 
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It_PPH1 was_VBDZ not_XX possible_JJ to_TO determine_VVI if_CS neither_RR or_CC both_DB2 hypotheses_NN2 contributed_VVN to_II adaptation_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Introduction_NN1 The_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO the_AT experiment_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO investigate_VVI how_RRQ the_AT wearing_NN1 of_IO prisms_NN2 affected_VVN perception_NN1 and_CC motor_NN1 response_NN1 under_II certain_JJ circumstances_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
In_II 1963_MC ,_, Harris_NP1 performed_VVD experiments_NN2 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO explore_VVI the_AT adaptation_NN1 of_IO displaced_JJ vision_NN1 ;_; to_TO observe_VVI whether_CSW adaptation_NN1 was_VBDZ due_II21 to_II22 visual_JJ ,_, motor_NN1 ,_, or_CC proprioceptive_JJ change_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
When_RRQ prisms_NN2 are_VBR worn_VVN ,_, the_AT retinal_JJ image_NN1 is_VBZ displaced_VVN ._. 
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<s>
Objects_NN2 directly_RR in_II31 front_II32 of_II33 the_AT subject_NN1 appear_VV0 to_TO be_VBI off_RP to_II one_MC1 side_NN1 ._. 
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When_CS asked_VVN to_TO reach_VVI for_IF these_DD2 objects_NN2 ,_, subjects_NN2 make_VV0 corresponding_JJ errors_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
After_CS a_AT1 few_DA2 minutes_NNT2 of_IO practise_NN1 ,_, subjects_NN2 adapt_VV0 and_CC are_VBR able_JK to_TO compensate_VVI for_IF this_DD1 distortion_NN1 ._. 
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Therefore_RR ,_, the_AT linkage_NN1 between_II perception_NN1 and_CC motor_NN1 responses_NN2 is_VBZ altered_VVN ._. 
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<s>
There_EX are_VBR several_DA2 possible_JJ mechanisms_NN2 which_DDQ may_VM be_VBI responsible_JJ for_IF this_DD1 adaptation_NN1 ._. 
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Firstly_RR ,_, that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 change_NN1 in_II visual_JJ perception_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
After_CS adaptation_NN1 ,_, things_NN2 that_CST initially_RR appeared_VVD to_TO be_VBI off_RP to_II one_MC1 side_NN1 appear_VV0 directly_RR ahead_RL again_RT ._. 
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<s>
Or_CC ,_, secondly_RR ,_, that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 change_NN1 in_II the_AT felt_NN1 position_NN1 of_IO the_AT arm_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT proprioceptive_JJ position_NN1 of_IO the_AT arm_NN1 is_VBZ altered_VVN so_CS21 that_CS22 it_PPH1 &bquo;_" feels_VVZ &equo;_" as_CS21 if_CS22 in_II a_AT1 different_JJ spatial_JJ location_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
We_PPIS2 can_VM hypothesise_VVI that_CST if_CS there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 change_NN1 in_II visual_JJ perception_NN1 then_RT pointing_VVG with_IW a_AT1 non-preferred_JJ hand_NN1 should_VM show_VVI the_AT same_DA adaptive_JJ shift_NN1 as_CSA for_IF the_AT normal_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, while_CS pointing_VVG to_II an_AT1 auditory_JJ target_NN1 should_VM show_VVI no_AT adaptive_JJ shift_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Alternatively_RR ,_, we_PPIS2 can_VM also_RR hypothesise_VVI that_CST if_CS there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 change_NN1 in_II proprioception_NN1 ,_, pointing_VVG with_IW the_AT non-preferred_JJ hand_NN1 should_VM show_VVI no_AT adaptive_JJ shift_NN1 ,_, while_CS pointing_VVG with_IW the_AT preferred_JJ hand_NN1 at_II the_AT non-visual_JJ target_NN1 should_VM show_VVI the_AT same_DA adaptive_JJ shift_NN1 as_CSA that_DD1 for_IF the_AT visual_JJ target_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Experiment_VV0 1_MC1 Design_NN1 :_: The_AT distance_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 finger_NN1 from_II a_AT1 target_NN1 was_VBDZ measured_VVN where_CS the_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ either_RR under_RG normal_JJ conditions_NN2 ,_, wearing_VVG prisms_NN2 ,_, or_CC had_VHD his/her_APPGE eyes_NN2 closed_VVN while_CS listening_VVG to_II an_AT1 auditory_JJ signal_NN1 using_VVG a_AT1 within_II subjects_NN2 design_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Subjects_NN2 :_: Thirty-four_MC second-year_JJ psychology_NN1 undergraduates_NN2 at_II the_AT University_NN1 of_IO Edinburgh_NP1 ._. 
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<s>
Materials_NN2 :_: Prisms_NN2 attached_VVN to_II spectacle_NN1 frames_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 sloping_JJ card_NN1 marked_VVN with_IW four_MC targets_NN2 &mdash;_- ;_; A_ZZ1 ,_, B_ZZ1 ,_, C_ZZ1 ,_, and_CC D_ZZ1 evenly_RR spaced_VVN with_IW the_AT outer_JJ lines_NN2 at_RR21 least_RR22 six_MC inches_NNU2 in_RP from_II the_AT edges_NN2 of_IO the_AT card_NN1 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 metre_NNU1 rule_NN1 ._. 
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Procedure_NN1 :_: Subjects_NN2 were_VBDR divided_VVN into_II two_MC groups_NN2 of_IO 17_MC ._. 
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One_MC1 member_NN1 of_IO each_DD1 group_NN1 was_VBDZ assigned_VVN a_AT1 partner_NN1 from_II the_AT other_JJ group_NN1 ._. 
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Each_DD1 pair_NN was_VBDZ then_RT placed_VVN in_II an_AT1 isolated_JJ cubicle_NN1 ._. 
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One_MC1 of_IO the_AT pair_NN was_VBDZ designated_VVN the_AT subject_NN1 and_CC the_AT other_JJ the_AT experimenter_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ then_RT asked_VVN to_TO point_VVI at_II the_AT targets_NN2 under_RG three_MC conditions_NN2 :_: A_ZZ1 &mdash;_- ;_; Without_IW prisms_NN2 ._. 
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B_ZZ1 &mdash;_- ;_; Wearing_VVG prisms_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
C_ZZ1 &mdash;_- ;_; Auditory_JJ target_NN1 with_IW eyes_NN2 closed_VVD ._. 
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<s>
Condition_NN1 A_ZZ1 was_VBDZ used_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO measure_VVI normal_JJ accuracy_NN1 and_CC condition_NN1 B_ZZ1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO measure_VVI the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO the_AT prisms_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
In_II condition_NN1 C_ZZ1 ,_, the_AT experimenter_NN1 asked_VVD the_AT subject_JJ to_TO close_VVI his/her_APPGE eyes_NN2 with_IW the_AT prisms_NN2 left_VVD on_RP so_RR the_AT effects_NN2 would_VM not_XX be_VBI lost_VVN when_CS the_AT subjects_NN2 opened_VVD their_APPGE eyes_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Auditory_JJ targets_NN2 were_VBDR produced_VVN by_II the_AT experimenter_NN1 tapping_VVG on_II the_AT table_NN1 by_II the_AT targets_NN2 using_VVG a_AT1 pen_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
After_CS measurements_NN2 had_VHD been_VBN carried_VVN out_RP under_II each_DD1 of_IO these_DD2 conditions_NN2 ,_, the_AT metre_NNU1 rule_NN1 was_VBDZ moved_VVN back_RP towards_II the_AT experimenter_NN1 so_CS21 that_CS22 the_AT subject_NN1 could_VM see_VVI his/her_APPGE finger_NN1 when_CS pointing_VVG ._. 
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<s>
They_PPHS2 then_RT pointed_VVD at_II the_AT targets_NN2 for_IF ten_MC minutes_NNT2 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO improve_VVI their_APPGE accuracy_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
At_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 adaptation_NN1 phase_NN1 ,_, the_AT subjects_NN2 withdrew_VVD their_APPGE hand_NN1 ,_, the_AT metre_NNU1 rule_NN1 was_VBDZ replaced_VVN ,_, and_CC the_AT subjects_NN2 were_VBDR retested_VVN under_II the_AT experimental_JJ conditions_NN2 in_II the_AT order_NN1 B_ZZ1 ,_, C_ZZ1 ,_, A._NNU Under_II each_DD1 condition_NN1 ,_, both_RR before_CS and_CC after_CS the_AT adaptation_NN1 phase_NN1 ,_, the_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ required_VVN to_TO point_VVI at_II each_DD1 of_IO the_AT four_MC targets_NN2 five_MC times_NNT2 with_IW the_AT order_NN1 in_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 were_VBDR required_VVN to_TO point_VVI to_II the_AT targets_NN2 randomised_VVN so_CS21 that_CS22 the_AT subjects_NN2 did_VDD not_XX become_VVI practised_VVN by_II repeated_JJ measurements_NN2 in_II the_AT same_DA position_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Experiment_NN1 2_MC Design_NN1 :_: The_AT distance_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 finger_NN1 from_II a_AT1 target_NN1 was_VBDZ measured_VVN where_CS the_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ either_RR under_RG normal_JJ conditions_NN2 ,_, wearing_VVG prisms_NN2 ,_, or_CC using_VVG a_AT1 non-preferred_JJ hand_NN1 while_CS wearing_VVG prisms_NN2 using_VVG a_AT1 within_II subjects_NN2 design_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Subjects_NN2 :_: Thirty-four_MC second-year_JJ psychology_NN1 undergraduates_NN2 at_II the_AT University_NN1 of_IO Edinburgh_NP1 ._. 
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<s>
Materials_NN2 :_: Prisms_NN2 attached_VVN to_II spectacle_NN1 frames_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 sloping_JJ card_NN1 marked_VVN with_IW four_MC targets_NN2 &mdash;_- ;_; A_ZZ1 ,_, B_ZZ1 ,_, C_ZZ1 ,_, and_CC D_ZZ1 evenly_RR spaced_VVN with_IW the_AT outer_JJ lines_NN2 at_RR21 least_RR22 six_MC inches_NNU2 in_RP from_II the_AT edges_NN2 of_IO the_AT card_NN1 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 metre_NNU1 rule_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Procedure_NN1 :_: In_II each_DD1 pair_NN ,_, the_AT experimenter_NN1 and_CC subject_NN1 swapped_VVD roles_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT procedure_NN1 was_VBDZ exactly_RR as_II21 for_II22 Experiment_NN1 1_MC1 except_II condition_NN1 C_NP1 was_VBDZ to_TO point_VVI at_II a_AT1 target_NN1 using_VVG the_AT non-preferred_JJ hand_NN1 while_CS wearing_VVG prisms_NN2 ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 pointing_VVG at_II an_AT1 auditory_JJ target_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT adaptation_NN1 phase_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, again_RT was_VBDZ performed_VVN using_VVG the_AT preferred_JJ hand_NN1 only_RR ._. 
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<s>
Scoring_VVG pointing_JJ accuracy_NN1 :_: The_AT distance_NN1 between_II the_AT subject_NN1 's_GE finger_NN1 and_CC the_AT centre_NN1 of_IO the_AT target_NN1 was_VBDZ measured_VVN in_II millimetres_NNU2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT direction_NN1 was_VBDZ included_VVN with_IW this_DD1 measurement_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT experimenter_NN1 's_GE right_NN1 was_VBDZ taken_VVN as_CSA positive_JJ and_CC their_APPGE left_JJ as_CSA negative_JJ ._. 
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<s>
The_AT results_NN2 were_VBDR then_RT calculated_VVN as_II the_AT average_JJ error_NN1 across_II the_AT 20_MC readings_NN2 for_IF a_AT1 single_JJ condition_NN1 for_IF each_DD1 of_IO the_AT three_MC pre-_JJ and_CC post-adaptation_JJ phase_NN1 conditions_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Results_NN2 :_: Table_NN1 1_MC1 and_CC Table_NN1 2_MC show_VV0 the_AT mean_JJ and_CC standard_JJ deviation_NN1 in_II accuracy_NN1 of_IO pointing_VVG before_II and_CC after_CS the_AT adaptive_JJ phase_NN1 for_IF experiments_NN2 1_MC1 and_CC 2_MC respectively_RR ._. 
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<s>
Table_NN1 3_MC shows_VVZ the_AT results_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 one-way_JJ ANOVA_NN1 (_( related_JJ )_) calculated_VVD between_II the_AT 6_MC conditions_NN2 ,_, A_ZZ1 ,_, B_ZZ1 ,_, and_CC C_ZZ1 in_II both_DB2 the_AT post_NN1 and_CC pre-adaptation_JJ phases_NN2 ,_, for_IF each_DD1 experiment_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT F-ratio_NN1 was_VBDZ calculated_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO determine_VVI whether_CSW any_DD of_IO the_AT conditions_NN2 showed_VVD a_AT1 significant_JJ difference_NN1 from_II the_AT others_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT F-ratio_NN1 was_VBDZ found_VVN to_TO be_VBI significant_JJ (_( p_ZZ1 &lt;_FO 0.001_MC )_) in_II both_DB2 experiments_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Several_DA2 t-tests_NN2 were_VBDR carried_VVN out_RP between_II conditions_NN2 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO find_VVI which_DDQ hypothesis_NN1 was_VBDZ most_RGT strongly_RR supported_VVN ._. 
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<s>
Table_NN1 4_MC shows_VVZ the_AT result_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 t-test_NN1 (_( related_JJ ,_, 1-tailed_JJ )_) comparing_VVG the_AT error_NN1 in_II pointing_VVG of_IO normal_JJ vision_NN1 with_IW that_DD1 when_CS wearing_VVG the_AT prisms_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 result_NN1 ,_, as_CSA expected_VVN ,_, shows_VVZ a_AT1 very_RG significant_JJ increase_NN1 in_II error_NN1 due_II21 to_II22 the_AT wearing_NN1 of_IO prisms_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Table_NN1 5_MC shows_VVZ the_AT result_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 t-test_NN1 (_( related_JJ ,_, 1-tailed_JJ )_) comparing_VVG the_AT error_NN1 in_II pointing_VVG for_IF condition_NN1 B_ZZ1 before_CS and_CC after_CS the_AT adaptation_NN1 phase_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 result_NN1 showed_VVD a_AT1 highly_RR significant_JJ improvement_NN1 in_II accuracy_NN1 due_II21 to_II22 the_AT adaptation_NN1 period_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Table_NN1 6_MC shows_VVZ the_AT result_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 t-test_NN1 (_( related_JJ ,_, 2-tailed_JJ )_) which_DDQ compares_VVZ the_AT difference_NN1 in_II error_NN1 when_CS pointing_VVG after_II the_AT adaptation_NN1 before_II and_CC after_CS the_AT prisms_NN2 are_VBR removed_VVN ._. 
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<s>
The_AT results_NN2 show_VV0 that_CST this_DD1 adaptation_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX due_II21 to_II22 some_DD sort_NN1 of_IO learned_JJ mechanism_NN1 of_IO correction_NN1 in_II pointing_VVG ,_, as_CSA the_AT error_NN1 increased_VVN when_CS the_AT prisms_NN2 were_VBDR removed_VVN ._. 
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<s>
Table_NN1 7_MC shows_VVZ the_AT result_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 t-test_NN1 (_( related_JJ ,_, 1-tailed_JJ )_) which_DDQ shows_VVZ the_AT difference_NN1 in_II error_NN1 between_II pointing_VVG to_II a_AT1 non-auditory_JJ target_NN1 before_II and_CC after_CS the_AT adaptation_NN1 phase_NN1 in_II experiment_NN1 1_MC1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 shows_VVZ that_CST there_EX was_VBDZ significant_JJ improvement_NN1 in_II pointing_VVG after_II adaptation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
From_II the_AT hypothesis_NN1 that_CST adaptation_NN1 is_VBZ proprioceptive_JJ due_II21 to_II22 the_AT learning_NN1 of_IO arm_NN1 movements_NN2 ,_, this_DD1 is_VBZ what_DDQ should_VM be_VBI expected_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Table_NN1 8_MC shows_VVZ the_AT result_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 t-test_NN1 (_( related_JJ ,_, 1-tailed_JJ )_) which_DDQ shows_VVZ the_AT difference_NN1 in_II error_NN1 when_CS pointing_VVG with_IW the_AT non-preferred_JJ hand_NN1 before_II and_CC after_II adaptation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 result_NN1 shows_VVZ a_AT1 significant_JJ improvement_NN1 in_II pointing_VVG after_II adaptation_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 supports_VVZ the_AT hypothesis_NN1 that_CST adaptation_NN1 is_VBZ due_II21 to_II22 visual_JJ change_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Discussion_NN1 As_CSA expected_VVN ,_, the_AT results_NN2 show_VV0 a_AT1 significant_JJ decrease_NN1 in_II accuracy_NN1 when_CS initially_RR pointing_VVG to_II a_AT1 target_NN1 while_CS wearing_VVG prisms_NN2 than_CSN for_IF normal_JJ vision_NN1 ._. 
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The_AT results_NN2 also_RR show_VV0 a_AT1 significant_JJ difference_NN1 in_II accuracy_NN1 before_II and_CC after_II adaptation_NN1 when_CS wearing_VVG prisms_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 suggests_VVZ that_DD1 adaptation_NN1 does_VDZ occur_VVI ._. 
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<s>
Adaptation_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX due_II21 to_II22 some_DD sort_NN1 of_IO learned_JJ mechanism_NN1 involving_VVG conscious_JJ correction_NN1 of_IO pointing_VVG ,_, because_CS there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 significant_JJ difference_NN1 after_II adaptation_NN1 between_II aim_NN1 while_CS wearing_VVG prisms_NN2 and_CC that_DD1 for_IF normal_JJ vision_NN1 following_VVG the_AT removal_NN1 of_IO the_AT prisms_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 was_VBDZ also_RR expected_VVN as_II a_AT1 learned_JJ mechanism_NN1 did_VDD not_XX adhere_VVI with_IW either_DD1 hypothesis_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT results_NN2 from_II Table_NN1 6_MC and_CC Table_NN1 7_MC give_VV0 weight_NN1 to_II both_DB2 the_AT hypothesis_NN1 of_IO change_NN1 in_II visual_JJ perception_NN1 and_CC that_DD1 of_IO proprioceptive_JJ change_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
There_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 significant_JJ increase_NN1 in_II accuracy_NN1 after_II adaptation_NN1 in_II both_DB2 cases_NN2 ;_; this_DD1 causes_VVZ a_AT1 contradiction_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT change_NN1 in_II auditory_JJ target_NN1 pointing_VVG shown_VVN in_II Table_NN1 6_MC supports_VVZ the_AT hypothesis_NN1 that_CST adaptation_NN1 is_VBZ due_JJ to_TO change_VVI in_II the_AT proprioceptive_JJ sense_NN1 in_II the_AT arm_NN1 ,_, while_CS the_AT adaptation_NN1 in_II the_AT non-preferred_JJ hand_NN1 in_II Table_NN1 7_MC supports_VVZ the_AT other_JJ hypothesis_NN1 ;_; that_DD1 visual_JJ perception_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT key_NN1 to_II adaptation_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Harris_NP1 found_VVD that_DD1 adaptation_NN1 was_VBDZ ,_, in_II fact_NN1 ,_, due_II21 to_II22 a_AT1 change_NN1 in_II the_AT proprioceptive_JJ sense_NN1 of_IO the_AT arm_NN1 ._. 
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Our_APPGE experiment_NN1 confirms_VVZ this_DD1 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 ,_, however_RR ,_, seems_VVZ necessary_JJ to_TO carry_VVI out_RP further_JJR research_NN1 into_II adaptation_NN1 to_II prismatic_JJ distortion_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO isolate_VVI the_AT exact_JJ cause_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT experiment_NN1 could_VM have_VHI been_VBN improved_VVN if_CS measurements_NN2 had_VHD been_VBN made_VVN more_RGR accurately_RR ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ often_RR difficult_JJ ,_, for_IF the_AT experimenter_NN1 ,_, to_TO judge_VVI the_AT exact_JJ position_NN1 of_IO the_AT target_NN1 in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 the_AT metre_NNU1 rule_NN1 and_CC precisely_RR how_RGQ far_RR the_AT subject_NN1 's_GE finger_NN1 was_VBDZ from_II the_AT target_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT results_NN2 from_II the_AT experiment_NN1 showed_VVD that_CST ,_, when_CS pointing_VVG ,_, adaptation_NN1 to_II prismatic_JJ distortion_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 target_NN1 did_VDD occur_VVI and_CC that_CST it_PPH1 was_VBDZ not_XX due_II21 to_II22 any_DD learned_JJ mechanism_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Aspects_NN2 of_IO both_DB2 the_AT suggested_JJ hypotheses_NN2 were_VBDR supported_VVN as_CSA each_DD1 showed_VVD a_AT1 result_NN1 in_II its_APPGE favour_NN1 and_CC thus_RR the_AT exact_JJ mechanism_NN1 for_IF adaptation_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX determined_VVN ._. 
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<s>
The_AT mechanism_NN1 of_IO adaptation_NN1 could_VM ,_, in_II fact_NN1 ,_, be_VBI a_AT1 combination_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 the_AT suggested_JJ hypotheses_NN2 with_IW ,_, judging_VVG from_II the_AT results_NN2 ,_, the_AT second_MD dominant_JJ ._. 
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<s>
Name_NN1 :_: Kieran_NP1 Lee_NP1 (_( Graeme_NP1 Conn_NP1 )_) Week_NNT1 of_IO Experiment_NN1 :_: Autumn_NNT1 term_NN1 ,_, Week_NNT1 8_MC Lab_NN1 :_: Hemispheric_JJ Specialisation_NN1 Class_NN1 :_: Wednesday_NPD1 Demonstrator_NP1 :_: Dr._NNB P._NP1 Caryl_NP1 Due_JJ :_: January_NPM1 9th_MD ,_, 1991_MC (_( Extension_NN1 to_II January_NPM1 11th_MD ,_, 1991_MC )_) Submitted_VVD :_: January_NPM1 11th_MD ,_, 1991_MC Hemispheric_JJ Specialisation_NN1 Between_II the_AT Sexes_NN2 with_IW Subjects_NN2 Presented_VVN with_IW Stimuli_NN2 in_II either_DD1 Visual_JJ Field_NN1 University_NN1 undergraduates_NN2 of_IO both_DB2 sexes_NN2 viewed_VVD several_DA2 stimuli_NN2 using_VVG a_AT1 tachistoscope_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
These_DD2 stimuli_NN2 comprised_VVN of_IO verbal_JJ and_CC spatial_JJ tasks_NN2 with_IW the_AT stimuli_NN2 directed_VVD either_RR to_II the_AT left_JJ or_CC right_RR visual_JJ field_NN1 of_IO the_AT subject_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
For_IF verbal_JJ ability_NN1 ,_, there_EX was_VBDZ expected_VVN to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 ,_, whereas_CS visuo-spatial_JJ ability_NN1 was_VBDZ expected_VVN to_TO have_VHI a_AT1 lesser_JJ advantage_NN1 in_II the_AT right_JJ field_NN1 indicating_VVG left_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 would_VM support_VVI the_AT hypothesis_NN1 that_CST verbal_JJ ability_NN1 is_VBZ dominant_JJ in_II the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 and_CC spatial_JJ ability_NN1 is_VBZ dominant_JJ in_II the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Also_RR ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ expected_VVN that_DD1 ability_NN1 would_VM be_VBI more_RRR lateralised_VVN in_II men_NN2 than_CSN in_II women_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
That_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, in_II men_NN2 there_EX would_VM be_VBI a_AT1 greater_JJR right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 for_IF verbal_JJ ability_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 lesser_JJ right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 for_IF visuo-spatial_JJ ability_NN1 than_CSN in_II women_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
There_EX was_VBDZ ,_, indeed_RR ,_, found_VVD to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 greater_JJR right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 in_II verbal_JJ ability_NN1 and_CC thus_RR the_AT first_MD hypothesis_NN1 was_VBDZ supported_VVN ._. 
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<s>
In_II the_AT second_MD case_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, a_AT1 significant_JJ right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 was_VBDZ found_VVN for_IF males_NN2 over_II females_NN2 in_II verbal_JJ ability_NN1 ,_, but_CCB no_AT significant_JJ difference_NN1 was_VBDZ found_VVN between_II males_NN2 and_CC females_NN2 in_II advantage_NN1 between_II visual_JJ fields_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 did_VDD not_XX show_VVI men_NN2 to_TO be_VBI more_RGR lateralised_JJ visuo-spatially_RR than_CSN women_NN2 as_CSA would_VM have_VHI been_VBN expected_VVN ._. 
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<s>
Introduction_NN1 The_AT human_JJ brain_NN1 is_VBZ divided_VVN in_II half_DB and_CC control_NN1 of_IO the_AT body_NN1 's_GE basic_JJ movements_NN2 and_CC sensations_NN2 is_VBZ evenly_RR divided_VVN between_II the_AT two_MC halves_NN2 ,_, or_CC cerebral_JJ hemispheres_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 occurs_VVZ in_II a_AT1 crossed_JJ fashion_NN1 ,_, with_IW the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 controlling_VVG the_AT right_JJ side_NN1 of_IO the_AT body_NN1 and_CC the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 controlling_VVG the_AT left_JJ side_NN1 of_IO the_AT body_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
There_EX is_VBZ asymmetry_NN1 of_IO function_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, between_II the_AT two_MC hemispheres_NN2 as_CSA can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN by_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST very_RG few_DA2 people_NN are_VBR truly_RR ambiguous_JJ ._. 
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<s>
There_EX is_VBZ usually_RR dominance_NN1 in_II one_MC1 hemisphere_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Historically_RR ,_, clinical_JJ evidence_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT greatest_JJT source_NN1 of_IO research_NN1 into_II differences_NN2 between_II the_AT hemispheres_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
That_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, patients_NN2 who_PNQS half_RR suffered_VVN brain_NN1 damage_NN1 to_II one_MC1 of_IO their_APPGE hemispheres_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN used_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO examine_VVI the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 damage_NN1 on_II their_APPGE linguistic_JJ and_CC spatial_JJ abilities_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
More_RGR recently_RR ,_, however_RR ,_, interest_NN1 in_II the_AT left_JJ and_CC right_JJ brain_NN1 is_VBZ due_JJ to_TO work_VVI involving_VVG split-brain_JJ patients_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
These_DD2 patients_NN2 have_VH0 undergone_VVN medical_JJ surgery_NN1 to_TO cut_VVI the_AT cortical_JJ pathways_NN2 ,_, most_RGT notably_RR the_AT corpus_NN1 collosum_NN1 ,_, that_DD1 normally_RR connect_VV0 the_AT hemispheres_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 gives_VVZ researchers_NN2 the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO study_VVI the_AT abilities_NN2 of_IO each_DD1 hemisphere_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 single_JJ brain_NN1 separately_RR ._. 
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<s>
Presently_RR ,_, research_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR being_VBG carried_VVN out_RP using_VVG normal_JJ patients_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Due_II21 to_II22 the_AT anatomical_JJ crossing_NN1 described_VVN above_RL ,_, the_AT optic_NN1 nerves_NN2 from_II the_AT right_JJ halves_NN2 of_IO each_DD1 eye_NN1 travel_NN1 to_II the_AT visual_JJ cortex_NN1 in_II the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 and_CC vice-versa_RR ._. 
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<s>
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 ,_, when_CS visual_JJ stimuli_NN2 is_VBZ flashed_VVN briefly_RR in_II the_AT left_JJ visual_JJ field_NN1 it_PPH1 projects_VVZ first_MD to_II the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 whereas_CS stimuli_NN2 flashed_VVD in_II the_AT right_JJ visual_JJ field_NN1 project_NN1 initially_RR to_II the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ only_RR true_JJ if_CS the_AT image_NN1 is_VBZ projected_VVN for_IF less_DAR time_NNT1 than_CSN it_PPH1 takes_VVZ for_IF the_AT eye_NN1 to_TO move_VVI ._. 
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<s>
The_AT time_NNT1 required_VVN for_IF an_AT1 eye_NN1 movement_NN1 is_VBZ approximately_RR 150_MC msecs_NN2 ,_, and_CC so_RR if_CS the_AT stimulus_NN1 is_VBZ presented_VVN for_IF less_DAR than_CSN 150_MC msecs_NN2 we_PPIS2 can_VM be_VBI certain_JJ that_CST the_AT image_NN1 is_VBZ projected_VVN only_RR to_II one_MC1 hemisphere_NN1 directly_RR ._. 
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<s>
Using_VVG a_AT1 tachistoscope_NN1 and_CC testing_VVG normal_JJ subjects_NN2 it_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN repeatedly_RR shown_VVN that_CST letters_NN2 and_CC words_NN2 presented_VVN in_II the_AT right_JJ visual_JJ field_NN1 are_VBR more_RGR easily_RR identified_VVN than_CSN the_AT same_DA stimuli_NN2 presented_VVN in_II the_AT left_JJ visual_JJ field_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 right_JJ field_NN1 superiority_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN interpreted_VVN as_CSA due_JJ ,_, at_RR21 least_RR22 in_RR21 part_RR22 ,_, to_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST stimuli_NN2 presented_VVN to_II the_AT right_JJ visual_JJ field_NN1 will_VM have_VHI readier_JJR access_NN1 to_II regions_NN2 of_IO the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 specialised_VVN for_IF the_AT reception_NN1 of_IO verbal_JJ stimuli_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 has_VHZ also_RR been_VBN proposed_VVN that_CST stimuli_NN2 where_RRQ accurate_JJ detection_NN1 rests_VVZ on_II some_DD form_NN1 of_IO visuo-spatial_JJ ability_NN1 are_VBR better_RRR perceived_VVN when_CS projected_VVN to_II the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 experiment_NN1 hypothesises_VVZ that_CST this_DD1 is_VBZ indeed_RR the_AT case_NN1 and_CC that_CST also_RR males_NN2 are_VBR more_RRR lateralised_VVN in_II both_DB2 the_AT left_JJ and_CC right_RR visual_JJ fields_NN2 ,_, and_CC accordingly_RR the_AT right_NN1 and_CC left_JJ cerebral_JJ hemispheres_NN2 respectively_RR ,_, than_CSN women_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Design_NN1 :_: The_AT accuracy_NN1 of_IO response_NN1 to_II verbal_JJ and_CC spatial_JJ stimuli_NN2 which_DDQ were_VBDR projected_VVN using_VVG a_AT1 tachistoscope_NN1 was_VBDZ measured_VVN for_IF each_DD1 sex_NN1 ,_, using_VVG a_AT1 within_RL and_CC between_II subjects_NN2 design_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Subjects_NN2 :_: 142_MC second-year_JJ undergraduate_NN1 students_NN2 at_II the_AT University_NN1 of_IO Edinburgh_NP1 ._. 
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<s>
Materials_NN2 :_: A_AT1 tachistoscope_NN1 and_CC four_MC different_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO stimulus_NN1 materials_NN2 :_: Words_NN2 (_( 32_MC card_NN1 set_NN1 )_) :_: 6x4_FO cards_NN2 on_II which_DDQ are_VBR printed_VVN either_RR to_II the_AT left_JJ or_CC right_NN1 of_IO the_AT centre_NN1 point_NN1 by_II approximately_RR 1.5_MC cms_NNU2 ,_, common_JJ words_NN2 of_IO 3-5_MCMC letters_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
In_II each_DD1 set_NN1 there_EX were_VBDR 16_MC words_NN2 appearing_VVG on_II the_AT left_JJ and_CC 16_MC words_NN2 appearing_VVG on_II the_AT right_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
CVC_NP1 Trigrams_NP1 (_( 32_MC card_NN1 set_NN1 )_) :_: The_AT stimuli_NN2 are_VBR presented_VVN in_II the_AT same_DA position_NN1 on_II the_AT cards_NN2 ,_, but_CCB are_VBR trigrams_NNU2 ,_, again_RT 16_MC on_II the_AT left_JJ and_CC 16_MC on_II the_AT right_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Dot_NN1 Location_NN1 (_( 32_MC card_NN1 set_NN1 )_) :_: Cards_NN2 on_II which_DDQ a_AT1 single_JJ dot_NN1 appears_VVZ either_RR to_II the_AT left_JJ or_CC right_NN1 of_IO the_AT centre_NN1 ,_, and_CC which_DDQ appears_VVZ in_II any_DD of_IO 16_MC positions_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
A_AT1 key_JJ card_NN1 number_NN1 numbering_VVG the_AT various_JJ positions_NN2 was_VBDZ mounted_VVN on_II the_AT top_NN1 of_IO the_AT tachistoscope_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Dot_NN1 Counting_NN1 (_( 64_MC card_NN1 set_NN1 )_) :_: Cards_NN2 on_II which_DDQ a_AT1 group_NN1 of_IO dots_NN2 numbering_VVG between_II 3_MC and_CC 10_MC appear_VV0 either_RR left_VVN or_CC right_NN1 of_IO centre_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
There_EX were_VBDR 32_MC on_II the_AT left_JJ and_CC 32_MC on_II the_AT right_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Procedure_NN1 :_: Subjects_NN2 were_VBDR divided_VVN into_II two_MC groups_NN2 of_IO 71_MC ._. 
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<s>
One_MC1 member_NN1 of_IO each_DD1 group_NN1 ,_, partner_NN1 A_ZZ1 ,_, was_VBDZ assigned_VVN a_AT1 partner_NN1 from_II the_AT other_JJ group_NN1 ,_, partner_NN1 B._NP1 Each_DD1 pair_NN was_VBDZ then_RT placed_VVN in_II an_AT1 isolated_JJ cubicle_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Each_DD1 partner_NN1 was_VBDZ then_RT tested_VVN with_IW a_AT1 verbal_JJ task_NN1 (_( trigrams_NNU2 or_CC words_NN2 )_) and_CC a_AT1 spatial_JJ task_NN1 (_( dot_NN1 location_NN1 or_CC dot_NN1 counting_NN1 )_) for_IF partners_NN2 A_ZZ1 and_CC B_ZZ1 respectively_RR ._. 
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<s>
For_IF the_AT location_NN1 task_NN1 ,_, fixation_NN1 cards_NN2 with_IW two_MC half_DB square_JJ fields_NN2 on_II them_PPHO2 were_VBDR used_VVN ._. 
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<s>
After_CS each_DD1 trial_NN1 in_II the_AT location_NN1 task_NN1 ,_, the_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ asked_VVN to_TO name_VVI the_AT position_NN1 of_IO the_AT dot_NN1 according_II21 to_II22 grid_NN1 numbers_NN2 mounted_VVN on_II the_AT tachistoscope_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
For_IF the_AT counting_NN1 task_NN1 and_CC verbal_JJ material_NN1 ,_, fixation_NN1 cards_NN2 with_IW a_AT1 central_JJ +_FO were_VBDR used_VVN ._. 
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<s>
In_II the_AT counting_NN1 task_NN1 ,_, the_AT subject_NN1 simply_RR said_VVD how_RGQ many_DA2 dots_NN2 were_VBDR present_JJ after_II each_DD1 trial_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT cards_NN2 were_VBDR presented_VVN in_II a_AT1 random_JJ sequence_NN1 using_VVG examples_NN2 from_II the_AT Gelleman_NN1 Series_NN ,_, which_DDQ avoids_VVZ long_JJ runs_NN2 of_IO identical_JJ R_ZZ1 or_CC L_ZZ1 stimuli_NN2 ,_, given_VVN below_RL :_: When_CS sorting_VVG the_AT stimulus_NN1 cards_NN2 into_II order_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ ensured_VVN that_CST subjects_NN2 could_VM not_XX see_VVI the_AT cards_NN2 or_CC the_AT experimenter_NN1 's_GE worksheet_NN1 ,_, on_II which_DDQ s/he_PPHS1 recorded_VVD the_AT subject_NN1 's_GE responses_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
During_II the_AT run_NN1 ,_, correct_JJ answers_NN2 were_VBDR checked_VVN before_II the_AT stimulus_NN1 cards_NN2 were_VBDR put_VVN into_II the_AT tachistoscope_NN1 and_CC the_AT appropriate_JJ trial_NN1 ticked_VVD if_CS the_AT subject_NN1 got_VVD the_AT answer_NN1 correct_JJ ._. 
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<s>
Results_NN2 :_: On_II the_AT results_NN2 sheet_NN1 ,_, subjects_NN2 were_VBDR asked_VVN to_TO fill_VVI in_II their_APPGE handedness_NN1 using_VVG scores_NN2 that_CST they_PPHS2 obtained_VVD in_II a_AT1 handedness_NN1 inventory_NN1 (_( example_NN1 in_II Appendix_NN1 A_ZZ1 )_) ._. 
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<s>
To_TO avoid_VVI getting_VVG into_II decimals_NN2 ,_, the_AT LQ_NP1 (_( Laterality_NP1 Quotient_NN1 )_) was_VBDZ first_MD multiplied_VVN by_II 100_MC ._. 
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<s>
The_AT score_NN1 obtained_VVN from_II each_DD1 part_NN1 of_IO the_AT inventory_NN1 was_VBDZ recorded_VVN separately_RR ._. 
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<s>
The_AT sex_NN1 of_IO the_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ also_RR recorded_VVN :_: 1_MC1 represented_VVD men_NN2 and_CC 2_MC represented_VVD women_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT degree_NN1 of_IO laterilisation_NN1 between_II different_JJ tasks_NN2 was_VBDZ compared_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO see_VVI if_CSW there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 greater_JJR right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, for_IF words_NN2 than_CSN there_EX is_VBZ for_IF trigrams_NNU2 ._. 
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<s>
Some_DD of_IO the_AT tasks_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, may_VM be_VBI simply_RR easier_JJR by_II nature_NN1 than_CSN others_NN2 and_CC a_AT1 significant_JJ result_NN1 may_VM just_RR indicate_VVI ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ easier_JJR to_TO recognise_VVI and_CC report_NN1 words_NN2 than_CSN trigrams_NNU2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT Right_JJ Field_NN1 Advantage_NN1 ,_, RFA_NP1 ,_, for_IF each_DD1 stimulus_NN1 type_NN1 was_VBDZ calculated_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO indicate_VVI the_AT relative_JJ performance_NN1 in_II each_DD1 visual_JJ field_NN1 for_IF each_DD1 task_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT RFA_NN1 for_IF each_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO stimulus_NN1 material_NN1 was_VBDZ calculated_VVN using_VVG The_AT RFAs_NP2 calculated_VVD for_IF each_DD1 stimulus_NN1 are_VBR shown_VVN in_II table_NN1 2_MC ._. 
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<s>
Table_NN1 3_MC shows_NN2 there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 significantly_RR greater_JJR RFA_NN1 for_IF trigram_NNU1 than_CSN for_IF dot_NN1 location_NN1 and_CC for_IF words_NN2 than_CSN for_IF dot_NN1 counting_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Also_RR ,_, Table_NN1 4_MC shows_NN2 there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 significantly_RR greater_JJR RFA_NN1 for_IF trigrams_NNU2 than_CSN for_IF dot_NN1 counting_NN1 and_CC for_IF words_NN2 than_CSN for_IF dot_NN1 location_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 does_VDZ not_XX ,_, however_RR ,_, show_VV0 if_CSW there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 significant_JJ bias_NN1 toward_II the_AT right_JJ field_NN1 for_IF the_AT verbal_JJ tasks_NN2 or_CC if_CS ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, verbal_JJ tasks_NN2 are_VBR just_RR more_RGR right_JJ in_II the_AT left_JJ visual_JJ field_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Table_NN1 5_MC shows_VVZ the_AT results_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 t-test_NN1 between_II a_AT1 stimulus_NN1 and_CC the_AT value_NN1 0.5_MC ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 would_VM be_VBI expected_VVN that_CST if_CS there_EX was_VBDZ no_AT right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 stimulus_NN1 then_RT the_AT RFA_NN1 would_VM be_VBI aproximately_RR 0.5_MC as_II the_AT values_NN2 for_IF the_AT left_JJ and_CC right_RR visual_JJ field_NN1 would_VM be_VBI about_II the_AT same_DA ._. 
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<s>
If_CS the_AT value_NN1 is_VBZ significantly_RR greater_JJR than_CSN this_DD1 there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 Right_JJ Field_NN1 Advantage_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Above_RL ,_, we_PPIS2 see_VV0 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ in_II fact_NN1 a_AT1 significant_JJ right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 for_IF the_AT verbal_JJ tasks_NN2 ,_, trigram_NNU1 and_CC word_NN1 recognition_NN1 and_CC also_RR a_AT1 significant_JJ lack_NN1 of_IO right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 for_IF the_AT spatial_JJ tasks_NN2 of_IO dot_NN1 location_NN1 and_CC counting_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR we_PPIS2 can_VM see_VVI that_DD1 verbal_JJ material_NN1 is_VBZ identified_VVN more_RGR accurately_RR in_II the_AT right_JJ hand_NN1 field_NN1 than_CSN in_II the_AT left_JJ and_CC that_DD1 ,_, in_II fact_NN1 ,_, dots_NN2 are_VBR located_VVN and_CC counted_VVN more_RGR accurately_RR in_II the_AT left_JJ hand_NN1 field_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
From_II table_NN1 6_MC ,_, we_PPIS2 see_VV0 that_CST with_IW minor_JJ significance_NN1 there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 difference_NN1 in_II the_AT degree_NN1 of_IO the_AT RFA_NN1 between_II recognision_NN1 of_IO trigram_NNU1 and_CC words_NN2 and_CC between_II dot_NN1 location_NN1 and_CC dot_NN1 counting_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR ,_, it_PPH1 seems_VVZ ,_, the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO the_AT verbal_JJ material_NN1 does_VDZ influence_VVI the_AT degree_NN1 of_IO RFA_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Also_RR ,_, it_PPH1 seems_VVZ that_CST to_II a_AT1 similar_JJ extent_NN1 the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO the_AT dot_NN1 task_NN1 also_RR influences_VVZ the_AT degree_NN1 of_IO RFA_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Table_NN1 7_MC and_CC 8_MC show_VV0 that_DD1 RFA_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX so_RG great_JJ for_IF females_NN2 as_II21 for_II22 the_AT overall_JJ population_NN1 ,_, especially_RR in_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO word_NN1 recognition_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ not_XX so_RG significantly_RR great_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Table_NN1 9_MC and_CC Table_NN1 10_MC show_VV0 that_DD1 RFA_NN1 is_VBZ significantly_RR greater_JJR for_IF males_NN2 than_CSN for_IF the_AT general_JJ population_NN1 and_CC from_II Table_NN1 8_MC that_DD1 RFA_NN1 is_VBZ greater_JJR than_CSN for_IF females_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Table_NN1 11_MC reaffirms_VVZ that_CST there_EX is_VBZ significantly_RR greater_JJR RFA_NN1 in_II men_NN2 than_CSN in_II women_NN2 for_IF verbal_JJ tasks_NN2 ,_, but_CCB not_XX for_IF spatial_JJ ones_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ already_RR been_VBN shown_VVN that_CST there_EX is_VBZ no_AT significant_JJ RFA_NN1 in_II spatial_JJ tasks_NN2 anyway_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 ,_, this_DD1 supports_VVZ the_AT hypothesis_NN1 that_CST men_NN2 are_VBR more_RRR specialised_VVN in_II the_AT left-brain_NN1 than_CSN women_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Discussion_NN1 From_II the_AT results_NN2 in_II Table_NN1 3_MC ,_, Table_NN1 4_MC ,_, and_CC Table_NN1 5_MC we_PPIS2 find_VV0 that_CST ,_, as_CSA expected_VVN ,_, subjects_NN2 more_RGR accurately_RR recognised_JJ trigrams_NNU2 and_CC words_NN2 presented_VVN on_II a_AT1 card_NN1 when_RRQ the_AT material_NN1 is_VBZ presented_VVN to_II the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 supports_VVZ the_AT hypothesis_NN1 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 for_IF verbal_JJ ability_NN1 over_II spatial_JJ ability_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 reflects_VVZ left-hemisphere_JJ specialisation_NN1 for_IF language_NN1 functions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT significant_JJ lack_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 advantage_NN1 in_II the_AT tasks_NN2 of_IO dot_NN1 location_NN1 and_CC counting_NN1 reflects_VVZ right-hemisphere_JJ specialisation_NN1 for_IF the_AT processing_NN1 of_IO visuo-spatial_JJ stimuli_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT brief_JJ period_NN1 of_IO time_NNT1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT words_NN2 were_VBDR presented_VVN to_II the_AT subject_NN1 in_II our_APPGE experiment_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, limited_VVN the_AT kinds_NN2 of_IO words_NN2 that_CST could_VM be_VBI used_VVN as_CSA stimuli_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Other_JJ researchers_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN able_JK to_TO overcome_VVI this_DD1 problem_NN1 in_II split-brain_JJ patients_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, Evan_NP1 Zaidel_NP1 has_VHZ developed_VVN a_AT1 device_NN1 known_VVN as_II the_AT Z_NP1 lens_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 contact_NN1 lens_NN1 that_CST permits_VVZ a_AT1 split-brain_JJ patient_NN1 to_TO move_VVI his/her_APPGE eyes_NN2 freely_RR when_CS examining_VVG an_AT1 object_NN1 ,_, but_CCB at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 ensures_VVZ that_CST only_RR one_MC1 hemisphere_NN1 of_IO the_AT patient_NN1 's_GE brain_NN1 receives_VVZ the_AT visual_JJ information_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR ,_, this_DD1 lens_NN1 allows_VVZ the_AT patient_JJ to_TO view_VVI a_AT1 stimulus_NN1 for_IF as_CS31 long_CS32 as_CS33 s/he_PPHS1 desires_VVZ while_CS also_RR enabling_VVG the_AT investigator_NN1 to_TO present_VVI the_AT stimulus_NN1 to_II one_MC1 hemisphere_NN1 alone_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
Of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, this_DD1 apparatus_NN1 would_VM not_XX be_VBI valid_JJ for_IF use_NN1 in_II normal_JJ subjects_NN2 as_II the_AT corpus_NN1 collosum_NN1 would_VM allow_VVI the_AT transfer_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 from_II one_MC1 hemisphere_NN1 to_II the_AT other_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
On_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 split-brain_JJ studies_NN2 ,_, the_AT most_RGT general_JJ statement_NN1 that_CST has_VHZ been_VBN made_VVN about_II right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 specialisation_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST they_PPHS2 are_VBR non-linguistic_JJ functions_NN2 that_CST seem_VV0 to_TO involve_VVI complex_JJ viso-spatial_JJ processes_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Evidence_NN1 supporting_VVG right-hemisphere_JJ superiority_NN1 includes_VVZ differences_NN2 in_II the_AT abilities_NN2 of_IO the_AT two_MC hands_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 split-brain_JJ patient_NN1 to_TO draw_VVI a_AT1 figure_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 cube_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Invariably_RR ,_, the_AT left_JJ hand_NN1 produces_VVZ a_AT1 better_JJR drawing_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 has_VHZ also_RR been_VBN found_VVN that_CST the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 is_VBZ specialised_VVN for_IF language_NN1 functions_NN2 ,_, but_CCB these_DD2 specialisations_NN2 are_VBR a_AT1 consequence_NN1 of_IO the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 's_GE superior_JJ analytic_JJ skills_NN2 ,_, of_IO which_DDQ language_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 manifestation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Similarly_RR ,_, the_AT right_JJ hemisphere_NN1 's_GE superior_JJ visuo-spatial_JJ performance_NN1 is_VBZ derived_VVN from_II it_PPH1 synthetic_JJ ,_, holistic_JJ manner_NN1 of_IO dealing_VVG with_IW information_NN1 with_IW ambiguous_JJ instruction_NN1 simply_RR to_TO match_VVI the_AT similar_JJ stimuli_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT results_NN2 from_II Table_NN1 8_MC ,_, Table_NN1 10_MC ,_, and_CC Table_NN1 11_MC also_RR show_VV0 that_CST ,_, although_CS there_EX remains_VVZ a_AT1 right_JJ field_NN1 advantage_NN1 in_II women_NN2 ,_, males_NN2 are_VBR significantly_RR more_RRR lateralised_VVN in_II the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 and_CC thus_RR verbal_JJ abilities_NN2 than_CSN women_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, in_II other_JJ studies_NN2 it_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN found_VVN that_CST women_NN2 in_RR21 general_RR22 have_VH0 superior_JJ verbal_JJ ability_NN1 to_II men_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Deborah_NP1 Waber_NP1 has_VHZ suggested_VVN that_DD1 sex_NN1 differences_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 sort_NN1 are_VBR not_XX attributable_JJ to_II sex_NN1 itself_PPX1 but_CCB to_II the_AT difference_NN1 between_II the_AT maturation_NN1 rates_NN2 of_IO the_AT sexes_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
She_PPHS1 states_VVZ that_RG early_RR maturers_NN2 have_VH0 better_RRR verbal_JJ aptitude_NN1 than_CSN spatial_JJ ability_NN1 ,_, whereas_CS later_JJR maturers_NN2 perform_VV0 better_RRR on_II spatial_JJ tasks_NN2 than_CSN verbal_JJ ones_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 prediction_NN1 have_VH0 ,_, in_II fact_NN1 ,_, been_VBN tested_VVN with_IW a_AT1 sample_NN1 of_IO children_NN2 where_RRQ individuals_NN2 were_VBDR classified_VVN as_CSA either_RR early_JJ or_CC late_JJ maturers_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_RR21 general_RR22 ,_, the_AT results_NN2 confirmed_VVD her_APPGE predictions_NN2 ;_; independent_JJ of_IO sex_NN1 ,_, late_JJ maturers_NN2 scored_VVD better_RRR on_II spatial_JJ tasks_NN2 and_CC early_JJ maturers_NN2 scored_VVD better_RRR on_II verbal_JJ tasks_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Also_RR ,_, difference_NN1 due_II21 to_II22 sex_NN1 where_RRQ not_XX found_VVN to_TO be_VBI significant_JJ in_II this_DD1 study_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 has_VHZ also_RR been_VBN suggested_VVN that_CST there_EX is_VBZ an_AT1 evolutionary_JJ basis_NN1 for_IF sex_NN1 differences_NN2 in_II lateralisation_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
By_II this_DD1 proposal_NN1 ,_, the_AT greater_JJR bilateralisation_NN1 in_II females_NN2 may_VM facilitate_VVI the_AT needs_NN2 of_IO females_NN2 in_II motherhood_NN1 including_II the_AT necessary_JJ communication_NN1 skills_NN2 ,_, whereas_CS restricted_JJ separation_NN1 of_IO function_NN1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO ensure_VVI a_AT1 high_JJ level_NN1 of_IO visuo-spatial_JJ skills_NN2 in_II males_NN2 required_VVN ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, in_II hunting_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
From_II this_DD1 viewpoint_NN1 ,_, if_CS we_PPIS2 assume_VV0 that_CST complex_JJ visuo-spatial_JJ capability_NN1 was_VBDZ present_JJ before_II the_AT evolution_NN1 of_IO language_NN1 in_II humans_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ that_CST in_II men_NN2 only_RR the_AT left_JJ hemisphere_NN1 became_VVD involved_JJ in_II language_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 would_VM have_VHI left_VVN visuo-spatial_JJ functions_NN2 intact_JJ in_II the_AT right_NN1 whereas_CS in_II women_NN2 language_NN1 could_VM have_VHI become_VVN established_VVN in_II both_DB2 hemispheres_NN2 ,_, crowding_VVG most_RGT specialised_JJ visuo-spatial_JJ ability_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
If_CS this_DD1 is_VBZ what_DDQ has_VHZ occurred_VVN ,_, &bquo;_" more_RRR lateralised_VVN &equo;_" would_VM be_VBI better_JJR for_IF visuo-spatial_JJ ability_NN1 and_CC &bquo;_" less_RRR lateralised_VVN &equo;_" would_VM be_VBI better_JJR for_IF language_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Our_APPGE results_NN2 would_VM support_VVI this_DD1 viewpoint_NN1 as_CSA men_NN2 where_CS found_VVN to_TO be_VBI more_RGR lateralised_JJ than_CSN women_NN2 and_CC they_PPHS2 have_VH0 poorer_JJR language_NN1 ability_NN1 ,_, but_CCB superior_JJ visual_JJ ability_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Other_JJ variables_NN2 could_VM also_RR be_VBI isolated_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO examine_VVI their_APPGE influence_NN1 on_II hemispherical_JJ asymmetry_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 include_VV0 handedness_NN1 ,_, familial_JJ sinistrality_NN1 ,_, depression_NN1 ,_, anxiety_NN1 ,_, schizophrenia_NN1 ,_, fatigue_NN1 ,_, age_NN1 ,_, smoking_VVG ,_, and_CC ._. 
</s>
<s>
Name_NN1 :_: Kieran_NP1 Lee_NP1 (_( Graeme_NP1 Conn_NP1 )_) Week_NNT1 of_IO Experiment_NN1 :_: Spring_NN1 term_NN1 ,_, Week_NNT1 1_MC1 Lab_NN1 :_: Timing_VVG Mental_JJ Processes_NN2 Class_NN1 :_: Wednesday_NPD1 Demonstrator_NP1 :_: Dr._NNB P._NP1 Caryl_NP1 Due_JJ :_: January_NPM1 30th_MD ,_, 1991_MC Submitted_VVD :_: January_NPM1 30th_MD ,_, 1991_MC Increase_VV0 in_II Reaction_NN1 Time_NNT1 With_IW Increase_NN1 in_II Amount_NN1 of_IO Information_NN1 or_CC Size_NN1 of_IO Task_NN1 University_NN1 undergraduates_NN2 sorted_VVD a_AT1 pack_NN1 of_IO 32_MC cards_NN2 into_II piles_NN2 of_IO varying_JJ number_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT number_NN1 of_IO piles_NN2 in_II which_DDQ the_AT cards_NN2 were_VBDR sorted_VVN were_VBDR 2_MC ,_, 4_MC ,_, 8_MC ,_, and_CC 16_MC requiring_VVG from_II 1_MC1 to_II 4_MC bits_NN2 of_IO information_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Undergraduates_NN2 were_VBDR also_RR shown_VVN sets_NN2 of_IO digits_NN2 of_IO varying_JJ sizes_NN2 and_CC then_RT shown_VVN a_AT1 &bquo;_" probe_NN1 &equo;_" digit_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 were_VBDR asked_VVN to_TO give_VVI a_AT1 positive_JJ or_CC negative_JJ response_NN1 as_RG quickly_RR as_CSA possible_JJ indicating_VVG the_AT presence_NN1 of_IO absence_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 &bquo;_" probe_NN1 &equo;_" digit_NN1 in_II the_AT memory_NN1 set_NN1 presented_VVD ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II the_AT first_MD case_NN1 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ expected_VVN that_CST there_EX would_VM be_VBI a_AT1 linear_JJ increase_NN1 in_II the_AT subject_NN1 's_GE reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 with_IW increase_NN1 in_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO bits_NN2 of_IO information_NN1 required_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 hypothesis_NN1 that_CST reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 increase_NN1 with_IW information_NN1 ,_, Hick_NP1 's_GE Law_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ supported_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II the_AT latter_DA case_NN1 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ expected_VVN that_CST there_EX would_VM be_VBI a_AT1 relationship_NN1 between_II size_NN1 of_IO the_AT memory_NN1 set_NN1 and_CC the_AT average_JJ response_NN1 time_NNT1 which_DDQ would_VM tend_VVI towards_II linearity_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ found_VVN that_CST this_DD1 occurred_VVD ,_, although_CS for_IF small_JJ sets_NN2 results_NN2 varied_VVD slightly_RR between_II positive_JJ and_CC negative_JJ responses_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II the_AT whole_NN1 ,_, as_CSA the_AT degree_NN1 of_IO discrimination_NN1 increased_VVD it_PPH1 was_VBDZ found_VVN that_DD1 reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 increased_VVN at_II a_AT1 fairly_RR constant_JJ rate_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Introduction_NN1 In_II a_AT1 situation_NN1 where_RRQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ required_VVN to_TO perform_VVI some_DD task_NN1 ,_, the_AT reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN to_TO include_VVI the_AT following_JJ :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) the_AT time_NNT1 taken_VVN by_II the_AT stimulus_NN1 to_TO activate_VVI the_AT sense_NN1 organ_NN1 and_CC for_IF impulses_NN2 to_TO travel_VVI from_II it_PPH1 to_II the_AT brain_NN1 ,_, (_( b_ZZ1 )_) the_AT central_JJ processes_NN2 concerned_JJ with_IW the_AT identification_NN1 of_IO the_AT signal_NN1 and_CC the_AT response_NN1 to_II it_PPH1 ,_, and_CC (_( c_ZZ1 )_) the_AT time_NNT1 required_VVN to_TO energise_VVI the_AT muscles_NN2 and_CC produce_VVI the_AT correct_JJ response_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Most_DAT studies_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 attempted_VVN to_TO establish_VVI laws_NN2 about_II reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 have_VH0 assumed_VVN that_CST stages_NN2 (_( a_ZZ1 )_) and_CC (_( c_ZZ1 )_) are_VBR relatively_RR short_JJ and_CC consider_VV0 that_CST effectively_RR all_DB the_AT time_NNT1 is_VBZ taken_VVN up_RP by_II central_JJ processes_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II 1868_MC ,_, Donders_NP1 attempted_VVD to_II measure_NN1 the_AT additional_JJ time_NNT1 taken_VVN by_II certain_JJ mental_JJ processes_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 discrimination_NN1 and_CC choice_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 hoped_VVD to_TO achieve_VVI this_DD1 by_II superimposing_VVG these_DD2 mental_JJ activities_NN2 upon_II the_AT simple_JJ reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 ,_, SRT_NP1 ,_, and_CC then_RT subtracting_VVG the_AT known_JJ value_NN1 of_IO the_AT SRT_NP1 from_II the_AT total_JJ reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 to_TO give_VVI the_AT duration_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 mental_JJ activity_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Where_CS the_AT task_NN1 involves_VVZ a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO choices_NN2 ,_, i.e._REX there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 choice_NN1 reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ long_RR been_VBN recognised_VVN that_DD1 reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 rose_VVD progressively_RR with_IW the_AT number_NN1 of_IO possible_JJ choices_NN2 ,_, but_CCB why_RRQ and_CC to_II what_DDQ extent_NN1 where_RRQ not_XX understood_VVN ._. 
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<s>
Hick_NP1 made_VVD a_AT1 break_NN1 through_RP into_II this_DD1 problem_NN1 as_CSA he_PPHS1 proposed_VVD that_CST in_II making_VVG choice_NN1 reactions_NN2 ,_, subjects_NN2 gain_VV0 information_NN1 at_II a_AT1 constant_JJ rate_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 experiment_NN1 intends_VVZ to_TO calculate_VVI the_AT rate_NN1 at_II which_DDQ reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 increase_NN1 with_IW amount_NN1 of_IO choice_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 also_RR hypothesises_VVZ that_DD1 reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 increases_VVZ as_II the_AT size_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 set_NN1 from_II which_DDQ an_AT1 object_NN1 must_VM be_VBI identified_VVN increases_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Experiment_VV0 1_MC1 Design_NN1 :_: Subjects_NN2 sorted_VVD out_RP a_AT1 pack_NN1 of_IO 32_MC cards_NN2 into_II piles_NN2 under_II a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO varying_JJ possibilities_NN2 using_VVG a_AT1 within_II subjects_NN2 design_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Subjects_NN2 :_: Twenty-nine_MC second-year_JJ psychology_NN1 undergraduates_NN2 at_II the_AT University_NN1 of_IO Edinburgh_NP1 ._. 
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<s>
Materials_NN2 :_: A_AT1 stopwatch_NN1 ,_, sorting_VVG templates_NN2 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 pack_NN1 of_IO playing_VVG cards_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT pack_NN1 includes_VVZ 32_MC cards_NN2 only_RR :_: 4_MC each_DD1 of_IO Aces_NN2 ,_, Kings_NN2 ,_, Queens_NP1 ,_, Jacks_NN2 ,_, 8s_MC2 ,_, 7s_MC2 ,_, 3s_MC2 ,_, and_CC 2s_MC2 ;_; a_AT1 Joker_NN1 was_VBDZ also_RR used_VVN ._. 
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<s>
Procedure_NN1 :_: Subjects_NN2 were_VBDR divided_VVN into_II two_MC groups_NN2 of_IO 19_MC with_IW one_MC1 floating_JJ subject_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
One_MC1 member_NN1 of_IO each_DD1 group_NN1 was_VBDZ assigned_VVN a_AT1 partner_NN1 from_II the_AT other_JJ group_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Each_DD1 pair_NN was_VBDZ then_RT placed_VVN in_II an_AT1 isolated_JJ cubicle_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT floating_JJ subject_NN1 shared_VVD a_AT1 cubicle_NN1 with_IW two_MC other_JJ partners_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT pair_NN was_VBDZ designated_VVN the_AT subject_NN1 and_CC the_AT other_JJ the_AT experimenter_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT pack_NN1 of_IO cards_NN2 was_VBDZ shuffled_VVN and_CC the_AT subject_NN1 held_VVD the_AT cards_NN2 face_VV0 up_RP in_II one_MC1 hand_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Joker_NP1 was_VBDZ used_VVN as_CSA as_II the_AT top_JJ card_NN1 and_CC the_AT subject_NN1 discarded_VVD this_DD1 on_II the_AT &bquo;_" go_NN1 &equo;_" signal_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT subject_NN1 then_RT sorted_VVD the_AT cards_NN2 into_II various_JJ classes_NN2 ,_, working_VVG as_RG quickly_RR as_CSA possible_JJ without_IW making_VVG mistakes_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_IF testing_VVG Hick_NP1 's_GE Law_NN1 ,_, the_AT number_NN1 of_IO possibilities_NN2 was_VBDZ tested_VVN as_CSA follows_VVZ :_: The_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ given_VVN a_AT1 practice_NN1 run_VVN through_II all_DB four_MC sorting_VVG tasks_NN2 ,_, starting_VVG at_II two_MC possibilities_NN2 and_CC working_VVG through_II four_MC ,_, eight_MC ,_, and_CC sixteen_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
Two_MC experimental_JJ trials_NN2 were_VBDR then_RT run_VV0 :_: first_MD in_II the_AT order_NN1 2_MC ,_, 4_MC ,_, 8_MC ,_, and_CC 16_MC ,_, and_CC second_NNT1 in_II the_AT order_NN1 16_MC ,_, 8_MC ,_, 4_MC ,_, and_CC 2_MC ._. 
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<s>
The_AT subject_NN1 's_GE time_NNT1 to_TO complete_VVI each_DD1 task_NN1 was_VBDZ recorded_VVN in_II milliseconds_NNT2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT subject_NN1 's_GE response_NN1 time_NNT1 per_II card_NN1 was_VBDZ thus_RR calculated_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT experimenter_NN1 and_CC the_AT subject_NN1 reversed_VVD roles_NN2 and_CC the_AT experiment_NN1 was_VBDZ repeated_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Results_NN2 :_: Table_NN1 1_MC1 and_CC Figure_NN1 1_MC1 show_VV0 the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT mean_JJ reaction_NN1 times_NNT2 and_CC number_NN1 of_IO bits_NN2 of_IO information_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN that_CST the_AT graph_NN1 slopes_VVZ up_RP and_CC although_CS an_AT1 exact_JJ relationship_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX exist_VVI ,_, a_AT1 systematic_JJ ones_NN2 does_VDZ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Figure_NN1 2_MC shows_VVZ a_AT1 best_RRT straight_JJ line_NN1 drawn_VVN by_II hand_NN1 from_II visual_JJ examination_NN1 of_IO the_AT lie_NN1 of_IO the_AT points_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 was_VBDZ very_RG difficult_JJ to_TO do_VDI and_CC there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 tendency_NN1 to_TO place_VVI the_AT y-intercept_VV0 at_II the_AT origin_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Regression_NN1 was_VBDZ used_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO find_VVI the_AT best_JJT straight_JJ line_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 gave_VVD the_AT line_NN1 shown_VVN in_II Figure_NN1 3_MC which_DDQ has_VHZ a_AT1 y-intercept_VV0 at_II 24.95680_MC and_CC a_AT1 gradient_NN1 of_IO +377.68396_MC ._. 
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<s>
From_II this_DD1 graph_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 see_VV0 that_CST increase_VV0 in_II reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 is_VBZ directly_RR proportional_JJ to_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO alternatives_NN2 ,_, by_II Hick_NP1 's_GE Law_NN1 :_: where_RRQ k_ZZ1 is_VBZ constant_JJ and_CC N_ZZ1 is_VBZ the_AT number_NN1 of_IO equally_RR probable_JJ alternatives_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 predicts_VVZ that_CST sorting_VVG time_NNT1 would_VM be_VBI 24.9568_MC msecs_NN2 per_II card_NN1 if_CS no_AT reference_NN1 was_VBDZ made_VVN to_II the_AT value_NN1 of_IO the_AT cards_NN2 and_CC that_CST the_AT rate_NN1 of_IO gain_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 for_IF the_AT class_NN1 is_VBZ 377.68396_MC msecs_NN2 per_II bit_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 per_II card_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Discussion_NN1 :_: As_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO possibilities_NN2 of_IO selecting_VVG the_AT cards_NN2 and_CC thus_RR the_AT number_NN1 of_IO bits_NN2 of_IO information_NN1 involved_VVD increases_NN2 ,_, the_AT amount_NN1 of_IO time_NNT1 taken_VVN to_TO perform_VVI the_AT task_NN1 increases_VVZ proportionally_RR ._. 
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<s>
The_AT amount_NN1 of_IO time_NNT1 required_VVN to_TO sort_VVI all_DB the_AT cards_NN2 without_IW actually_RR considering_II the_AT value_NN1 of_IO the_AT card_NN1 was_VBDZ calculated_VVN to_TO be_VBI approximately_RR 25_MC msecs_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ merely_RR the_AT reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 required_VVN in_II picking_VVG up_RP the_AT card_NN1 and_CC placing_VVG it_PPH1 on_II a_AT1 pile_NN1 without_IW making_VVG any_DD choice_NN1 based_VVN on_II the_AT value_NN1 of_IO the_AT card_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ thus_RR found_VVN that_CST the_AT majority_NN1 of_IO the_AT reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 required_VVN was_VBDZ in_II identifying_VVG the_AT values_NN2 of_IO the_AT card_NN1 and_CC choosing_VVG the_AT pile_NN1 onto_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 should_VM be_VBI placed_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ found_VVN that_CST for_IF each_DD1 additional_JJ bit_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 required_VVN this_DD1 time_NNT1 increased_VVN about_RG 377_MC msecs_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Thus_RR this_DD1 choice_NN1 reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 can_VM be_VBI described_VVN by_II RT_NP1 =_FO 377_MC *_FU log2N_FO where_RRQ N_ZZ1 is_VBZ the_AT number_NN1 of_IO possible_JJ values_NN2 from_II which_DDQ we_PPIS2 are_VBR required_VVN to_TO choose_VVI ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 shows_VVZ that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 constant_JJ increase_NN1 in_II the_AT time_NNT1 needed_VVN to_TO make_VVI this_DD1 choice_NN1 as_II the_AT amount_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 increases_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Experiment_NN1 2_MC Design_NN1 :_: Subjects_NN2 gave_VVD yes_UH and_CC no_AT responses_NN2 as_II21 to_II22 whether_CSW a_AT1 specific_JJ item_NN1 appeared_VVD in_II a_AT1 memory_NN1 set_NN1 of_IO varying_JJ size_NN1 displayed_VVN on_II a_AT1 computer_NN1 using_VVG a_AT1 within_II subjects_NN2 design_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Materials_NN2 :_: BBC_NP1 microcomputer_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 connecting_JJ Yes/No_UH response_NN1 box_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Procedure_NN1 :_: Subjects_NN2 were_VBDR divided_VVN into_II groups_NN2 and_CC placed_VVN into_II cubicles_NN2 as_CSA in_II Experiment_NN1 1_MC1 ._. 
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<s>
A_AT1 memory_NN1 scan_NN1 test_NN1 was_VBDZ loaded_VVN into_II the_AT BBC_NP1 microcomputer_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT experiment_NN1 consisted_VVN of_IO a_AT1 practice_NN1 session_NNT1 (_( 24_MC trials_NN2 )_) and_CC an_AT1 experimental_JJ session_NNT1 (_( 120_MC trials_NN2 )_) ._. 
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<s>
Each_DD1 trial_NN1 consisted_VVN of_IO a_AT1 visual_JJ warning_NN1 (_( two_MC arrowheads_NN2 indicated_VVD the_AT subject_NN1 should_VM attend_VVI to_II a_AT1 particular_JJ area_NN1 of_IO the_AT screen_NN1 )_) ,_, a_AT1 series_NN of_IO digits_NN2 (_( varying_VVG in_II length_NN1 from_II 1_MC1 to_II 6_MC digits_NN2 )_) presented_VVD at_II a_AT1 rate_NN1 of_IO 1.2_MC seconds_NNT2 per_II digit_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 gap_NN1 of_IO 2_MC seconds_NNT2 ,_, and_CC finally_RR a_AT1 probe_NN1 digit_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
As_CS31 soon_CS32 as_CS33 the_AT probe_NN1 digit_NN1 appeared_VVD the_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ required_VVN to_TO decide_VVI whether_CSW it_PPH1 was_VBDZ in_II the_AT memory_NN1 set_VVD just_RR presented_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT clock_NN1 to_TO record_VVI response_NN1 time_NNT1 starts_VVZ at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 that_CST the_AT probe_NN1 digit_NN1 is_VBZ shown_VVN on_II the_AT screen_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT subjects_NN2 responded_VVD Yes_UH or_CC No_AT as_RG fast_RR as_CSA possible_JJ with_IW the_AT preferred_JJ index_NN1 finger_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
After_CS the_AT practice_NN1 session_NNT1 ,_, the_AT subject_NN1 proceeded_VVD with_IW the_AT experimental_JJ run_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT end_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 was_VBDZ indicated_VVN by_II the_AT appearance_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 table_NN1 of_IO numbers_NN2 ;_; this_DD1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 record_NN1 of_IO the_AT average_JJ response_NN1 time_NNT1 for_IF both_RR Yes_UH and_CC No_AT responses_NN2 for_IF all_DB 6_MC memory_NN1 set_NN1 sizes_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Results_NN2 :_: Table_NN1 3_MC and_CC Table_NN1 4_MC show_VV0 the_AT means_NN and_CC standard_JJ deviations_NN2 of_IO Yes_UH and_CC No_AT response_NN1 times_NNT2 respectively_RR for_IF each_DD1 condition_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Figure_NN1 4_MC shows_VVZ a_AT1 separate_JJ graph_NN1 for_IF both_RR Yes_UH and_CC No_AT responses_NN2 on_II the_AT same_DA axes_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Table_NN1 5_MC shows_NN2 there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 significant_JJ main_JJ effect_NN1 for_IF the_AT type_NN1 of_IO response_NN1 (_( p_ZZ1 &lt;_FO 0.01_MC )_) ._. 
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<s>
There_EX is_VBZ also_RR a_AT1 much_RR greater_JJR significant_JJ effect_NN1 as_II the_AT size_NN1 of_IO the_AT memory_NN1 set_NN1 varies_VVZ (_( p_ZZ1 &lt;_FO 0.001_MC )_) ._. 
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<s>
There_EX was_VBDZ no_AT significant_JJ interaction_NN1 effect_NN1 showing_VVG the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO the_AT response_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX effect_VVI reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Table_NN1 6_MC and_CC Table_NN1 7_MC show_NN1 comparisons_NN2 of_IO response_NN1 time_NNT1 between_II sizes_NN2 of_IO memory_NN1 sets_VVZ for_CS Yes_UH and_CC No_AT responses_NN2 respectively_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
Values_NN2 for_IF memory_NN1 set_VVD 1_MC1 and_CC memory_NN1 set_VVD 2_MC refer_VV0 to_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO items_NN2 in_II that_DD1 set_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Table_NN1 6_MC shows_VVZ that_CST increase_VV0 in_II the_AT time_NNT1 to_TO respond_VVI yes_UH was_VBDZ significantly_RR great_JJ between_II memory_NN1 set_NN1 sizes_NN2 of_IO 2_MC and_CC 3_MC and_CC 3_MC and_CC 4_MC ._. 
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<s>
After_CS this_DD1 point_NN1 there_EX was_VBDZ no_AT further_JJR significant_JJ increase_NN1 in_II response_NN1 time_NNT1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Table_NN1 7_MC ,_, however_RR ,_, shows_VVZ that_CST the_AT time_NNT1 required_VVN to_TO give_VVI a_AT1 no_NN1 response_NN1 was_VBDZ significantly_RR greater_JJR when_CS the_AT size_NN1 of_IO memory_NN1 sets_NN2 excelled_VVD 3_MC items_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Response_NN1 time_NNT1 after_CS this_DD1 was_VBDZ shown_VVN to_TO continue_VVI to_TO increase_VVI significantly_RR Discussion_NN1 :_: It_PPH1 was_VBDZ found_VVN that_CST when_CS a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO digits_NN2 ,_, or_CC memory_NN1 set_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ presented_VVN on_II the_AT computer_NN1 screen_NN1 and_CC the_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ asked_VVN to_TO respond_VVI as_II21 to_II22 whether_CSW31 or_CSW32 not_CSW33 a_AT1 &bquo;_" probe_NN1 &equo;_" digit_NN1 was_VBDZ in_II this_DD1 memory_NN1 set_NN1 reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 increased_VVN ,_, although_CS not_XX linearly_RR ,_, as_CSA the_AT size_NN1 of_IO the_AT memory_NN1 set_NN1 increased_VVD ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX was_VBDZ no_AT significant_JJ difference_NN1 to_II the_AT manner_NN1 in_II which_DDQ yes_UH and_CC no_AT responses_NN2 increased_VVN over_II memory_NN1 set_NN1 size_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, there_EX were_VBDR some_DD differences_NN2 in_II the_AT degree_NN1 to_II which_DDQ rate_NN1 in_II reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 for_IF these_DD2 responses_NN2 increased_VVN for_IF different_JJ sizes_NN2 of_IO the_AT memory_NN1 set_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Subjects_NN2 seemed_VVD to_TO provide_VVI No_AT responses_NN2 slower_RRR than_CSN giving_VVG Yes_UH responses_NN2 initially_RR ,_, but_CCB No_AT response_NN1 reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 increased_VVN at_II a_AT1 greater_JJR rate_NN1 tending_VVG to_TO converge_VVI with_IW reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 for_CS Yes_UH responses_NN2 in_II larger_JJR memory_NN1 sets_NN2 of_IO about_RG four_MC digits_NN2 onwards_RL ._. 
</s>
<s>
General_JJ Discussion_NN1 Reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 increases_VVZ as_II a_AT1 function_NN1 of_IO the_AT amount_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 required_VVN to_TO be_VBI processed_VVN in_II the_AT brain_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II the_AT first_MD experiment_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 saw_VVD that_CST as_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO possibilities_NN2 in_II which_DDQ the_AT cards_NN2 may_VM be_VBI sorted_VVN increases_NN2 ,_, the_AT reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 required_JJ increases_NN2 proportionally_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
Through_II this_DD1 ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ also_RR possible_JJ to_TO calculate_VVI the_AT the_AT time_NNT1 taken_VVN for_IF the_AT simple_JJ reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 involved_JJ in_II the_AT relay_NN1 of_IO messages_NN2 between_II the_AT brain_NN1 and_CC the_AT hand_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_RR21 addition_RR22 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ found_VVN that_CST as_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO choices_NN2 which_DDQ could_VM be_VBI made_VVN ,_, when_CS choosing_VVG the_AT cards_NN2 ,_, increased_VVN by_II a_AT1 factor_NN1 of_IO 2_MC (_( another_DD1 bit_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 was_VBDZ required_VVN )_) ,_, the_AT time_NNT1 required_VVN for_IF the_AT brain_NN1 to_TO make_VVI this_DD1 choice_NN1 increased_VVN at_II a_AT1 constant_JJ rate_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II the_AT second_MD experiment_NN1 ,_, again_RT ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ found_VVN that_CST as_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO digits_NN2 in_II the_AT memory_NN1 set_NN1 increased_VVD the_AT time_NNT1 which_DDQ the_AT brain_NN1 required_VVN before_II making_VVG a_AT1 correct_JJ response_NN1 increased_VVD almost_RR linearly_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 shows_VVZ that_CST the_AT time_NNT1 to_TO respond_VVI to_II a_AT1 basic_JJ stimulus_NN1 is_VBZ fairly_RR small_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Simple_JJ reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 is_VBZ a_AT1 fraction_NN1 of_IO the_AT time_NNT1 required_VVN to_TO react_VVI even_CS21 when_CS22 having_VHG to_TO choose_VVI between_II only_RR two_MC possibilities_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Also_RR ,_, by_II separating_VVG the_AT simple_JJ reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 we_PPIS2 see_VV0 that_DD1 reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 increases_VVZ steadily_RR as_CSA the_AT amount_NN1 of_IO discrimination_NN1 required_JJ increases_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Name_NN1 :_: Kieran_NP1 Lee_NP1 (_( Graeme_NP1 Conn_NP1 )_) Week_NNT1 of_IO Experiment_NN1 :_: Spring_NN1 term_NN1 ,_, Week_NNT1 4_MC Lab_NN1 :_: Timing_VVG Mental_JJ Processes_NN2 II_MC Class_NN1 :_: Wednesday_NPD1 Demonstrator_NP1 :_: Dr._NNB P._NP1 Caryl_NP1 Due_JJ :_: February_NPM1 13th_MD ,_, 1991_MC Submitted_VVD :_: February_NPM1 13th_MD ,_, 1991_MC Variation_NN1 in_II Reaction_NN1 Time_NNT1 and_CC Recognition_NN1 of_IO Words_NN2 with_IW Differing_JJ Levels_NN2 of_IO Processing_VVG University_NN1 undergraduates_NN2 were_VBDR presented_VVN with_IW words_NN2 in_II a_AT1 two-field_JJ tachistoscope_NN1 and_CC asked_VVD ten_MC questions_NN2 of_IO each_DD1 type_NN1 :_: 1_MC1 )_) is_VBZ there_EX a_AT1 word_NN1 present_NN1 ;_; 2_MC )_) is_VBZ it_PPH1 printed_VVN in_II capital_NN1 letters_NN2 ;_; 3_MC )_) does_VDZ it_PPH1 rhyme_VVI with_IW &hellip;_... ;_; and_CC 4_MC )_) is_VBZ it_PPH1 a_AT1 member_NN1 of_IO the_AT category_NN1 &hellip;_... with_IW five_MC leading_JJ to_II a_AT1 &bquo;_" Yes_UH &equo;_" and_CC five_MC leading_JJ to_II a_AT1 &bquo;_" No_UH &equo;_" response_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ expected_VVN that_CST as_II the_AT level_NN1 of_IO processing_NN1 deepened_VVD ,_, the_AT reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 required_VVN to_TO answer_VVI and_CC the_AT number_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 recognised_VVN would_VM increase_VVI ._. 
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<s>
The_AT results_NN2 substantiated_VVD this_DD1 and_CC it_PPH1 was_VBDZ also_RR found_VVN that_CST at_II deeper_JJR levels_NN2 of_IO processing_NN1 ,_, &bquo;_" No_AT &equo;_" answers_NN2 were_VBDR less_RGR commonly_RR recognised_JJ than_CSN &bquo;_" Yes_UH &equo;_" answers_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 was_VBDZ considered_VVN to_TO be_VBI due_II21 to_II22 recognition_NN1 of_IO semantically_RR similar_JJ words_NN2 to_II those_DD2 seen_VVN in_II the_AT course_NN1 of_IO the_AT experiment_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Introduction_NN1 There_EX have_VH0 been_VBN several_DA2 suggestions_NN2 for_IF the_AT way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ memory_NN1 is_VBZ stored_VVN ,_, including_II the_AT commonly_RR held_VVN multi-stage_JJ model_NN1 (_( Lee_NP1 and_CC Conn_NP1 1990_MC )_) ._. 
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<s>
An_AT1 alternative_NN1 to_II this_DD1 ,_, however_RR ,_, was_VBDZ proposed_VVN by_II Craik_NP1 and_CC Lockhart_NP1 (_( 1972_MC )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II their_APPGE conception_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 suggest_VV0 that_DD1 memory_NN1 should_VM not_XX be_VBI envisaged_VVN as_II a_AT1 series_NN of_IO seperate_JJ stages_NN2 ;_; sensory_JJ ,_, short-term_JJ ,_, and_CC long_JJ term_NN1 memory_NN1 stores_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Instead_RR ,_, it_PPH1 could_VM more_RGR satisfactorily_RR be_VBI explained_VVN as_II a_AT1 continuum_NN1 ,_, with_IW recall_NN1 directly_RR dependent_JJ on_II the_AT kind_NN1 of_IO encoding_VVG that_DD1 is_VBZ carried_VVN out_RP ._. 
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<s>
The_AT basis_NN1 for_IF the_AT continuum_NN1 they_PPHS2 put_VV0 forward_RL is_VBZ was_VBDZ the_AT level_NN1 of_IO processing_VVG to_II which_DDQ the_AT input_NN1 is_VBZ subjected_VVN ._. 
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<s>
A_AT1 shallow_JJ level_NN1 of_IO analysis_NN1 would_VM involve_VVI the_AT analysis_NN1 of_IO the_AT input_NN1 for_IF its_APPGE physical_JJ details_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 lines_NN2 ,_, angles_NN2 ,_, and_CC brightness_NN1 of_IO physical_JJ stimuli_NN2 ,_, whereas_CS a_AT1 deep_JJ level_NN1 might_VM involve_VVI finding_VVG a_AT1 word_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ associated_VVN with_IW the_AT input_NN1 word_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
According_II21 to_II22 Craik_NP1 and_CC Lockhart_NP1 ,_, the_AT deeper_JJR the_AT level_NN1 of_IO processing_NN1 ,_, the_AT stronger_JJR will_VM be_VBI the_AT memory_NN1 trace_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT less_RGR likely_JJ that_CST forgetting_VVG will_VM occur_VVI ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 depth_NN1 of_IO processing_NN1 ,_, Craik_NP1 defined_VVD in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT meaningfulness_NN1 extracted_VVN from_II the_AT stimulus_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT number_NN1 of_IO analyses_NN2 performed_VVN upon_II it_PPH1 (_( Eysenck_NP1 1984_MC )_) ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 argued_VVD that_CST at_II deeper_JJR levels_NN2 of_IO processing_NN1 ,_, more_RGR semantic_JJ encoding_NN1 is_VBZ performed_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT experiment_NN1 to_TO be_VBI described_VVN here_RL is_VBZ a_AT1 replication_NN1 of_IO part_NN1 of_IO the_AT series_NN of_IO experiments_NN2 reported_VVN in_II Craik_NP1 and_CC Tulving_NP1 (_( 1975_MC )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
Reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 of_IO subjects_NN2 will_VM be_VBI measured_VVN when_CS required_VVN to_TO carry_VVI out_RP processing_VVG at_II different_JJ levels_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ hypothesised_VVN that_CST words_NN2 processed_VVN at_II deeper_JJR levels_NN2 will_VM be_VBI better_JJR recognised_JJ than_CSN those_DD2 processed_VVN to_II only_RR a_AT1 shallow_JJ level_NN1 and_CC that_DD1 reaction_NN1 times_NNT2 will_VM be_VBI longer_JJR at_II deeper_JJR levels_NN2 of_IO processing_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Subjects_NN2 :_: Sixty-one_MC second-year_JJ undergraduates_NN2 at_II the_AT University_NN1 of_IO Edinburgh_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Materials_NN2 :_: A_ZZ1 two-field_JJ tachistoscope_NN1 ,_, timer-counter_NN1 ,_, stimulus_NN1 cards_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Procedure_NN1 :_: 122_MC students_NN2 were_VBDR divided_VVN into_II two_MC groups_NN2 of_IO 61_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
One_MC1 group_NN1 was_VBDZ designated_VVN to_TO be_VBI the_AT subjects_NN2 ,_, the_AT other_JJ experimenters_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
One_MC1 member_NN1 of_IO each_DD1 group_NN1 was_VBDZ assigned_VVN a_AT1 partner_NN1 from_II the_AT other_JJ group_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Each_DD1 pair_NN was_VBDZ then_RT placed_VVN in_II an_AT1 isolated_JJ cubicle_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ given_VVN ten_MC questions_NN2 of_IO each_DD1 type_NN1 given_VVN below_RL ,_, five_MC leading_JJ to_II a_AT1 &bquo;_" Yes_UH &equo;_" and_CC five_MC leading_JJ to_II a_AT1 &bquo;_" No_UH &equo;_" response_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT types_NN2 of_IO question_NN1 where_CS :_: 1_MC1 )_) Is_VBZ there_EX a_AT1 word_NN1 present_NN1 ?_? 2_MC )_) Is_VBZ it_PPH1 printed_VVN in_II CAPITAL_NN1 letters_NN2 ?_? 3_MC )_) Does_VDZ it_PPH1 rhyme_VVI with_IW &hellip;_... ?_? 4_MC )_) Is_VBZ it_PPH1 a_AT1 member_NN1 of_IO the_AT category_NN1 &hellip;_... ?_? 
</s>
<s>
The_AT 40_MC questions_NN2 were_VBDR randomised_VVN and_CC are_VBR provided_VVN on_II the_AT question_NN1 sheet_NN1 in_II appendix_NN1 A_ZZ1 which_DDQ shows_VVZ the_AT stimulus_NN1 and_CC question_NN1 to_TO be_VBI asked_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Eight_MC practice_NN1 trials_NN2 (_( one_MC1 for_IF each_DD1 question-answer_JJ combination_NN1 )_) were_VBDR given_VVN before_II the_AT experiment_NN1 proper_JJ ,_, and_CC the_AT stimuli_NN2 and_CC questions_NN2 for_IF these_DD2 are_VBR shown_VVN at_II the_AT bottom_NN1 of_IO the_AT second_MD page_NN1 of_IO the_AT aforementioned_JJ question_NN1 sheet_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT subject_NN1 held_VVD one_MC1 response_NN1 button_NN1 in_II each_DD1 hand_NN1 ;_; Yes_UH and_CC No_AT buttons_NN2 differed_VVN in_II size_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT Yes_UH button_NN1 was_VBDZ held_VVN in_II the_AT preferred_JJ hand_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_IF each_DD1 trial_NN1 ,_, the_AT experimenter_NN1 placed_VVN a_AT1 stimulus_NN1 card_NN1 in_II the_AT tachistoscope_NN1 and_CC checked_VVD that_CST all_DB the_AT switches_NN2 were_VBDR reset_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT experimenter_NN1 asked_VVD the_AT appropriate_JJ question_NN1 and_CC checked_VVD that_CST the_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ ready_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
S/he_PPHS1 then_RT pressed_VVD the_AT button_NN1 to_TO present_VVI the_AT stimulus_NN1 card_NN1 and_CC start_VVI the_AT timer_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Each_DD1 word_NN1 appeared_VVD for_IF 200_MC milliseconds_NNT2 and_CC the_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ asked_VVN to_II responds_VVZ as_RG quickly_RR as_CSA possible_JJ by_II pressing_VVG either_RR the_AT &bquo;_" Yes_UH &equo;_" or_CC &bquo;_" No_AT &equo;_" response_NN1 button_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ stopped_VVD the_AT clock_NN1 ._. 
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The_AT reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 was_VBDZ then_RT read_VVN off_II the_AT timer_NN1 and_CC recorded_VVN in_II milliseconds_NNT2 in_II the_AT appropriate_JJ column_NN1 of_IO the_AT question_NN1 sheet_NN1 ,_, plus_II a_AT1 tick_NN1 in_II the_AT appropriate_JJ box_NN1 to_TO show_VVI whether_CSW the_AT response_NN1 was_VBDZ correct_JJ or_CC not_XX ._. 
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The_AT next_MD phase_NN1 involved_VVD giving_VVG the_AT subject_NN1 a_AT1 surprise_NN1 memory_NN1 test_NN1 in_II which_DDQ s/he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ given_VVN a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO 80_MC words_NN2 &mdash;_- ;_; the_AT original_JJ plus_II 40_MC distractors_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 similar_JJ type_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; and_CC was_VBDZ asked_VVN to_TO tick_VVI the_AT boxes_NN2 corresponding_VVG to_II the_AT words_NN2 which_DDQ s/he_PPHS1 recognised_VVD as_CSA those_DD2 presented_VVN in_II the_AT tachistoscope_NN1 ._. 
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Scoring_NN1 :_: A_ZZ1 the_AT end_NN1 of_IO the_AT 50_MC experimental_JJ trials_NN2 ,_, all_DB reaction_NN1 times_NNT2 were_VBDR crossed_VVN out_RP the_AT response_NN1 sheet_NN1 for_IF incorrect_JJ answers_NN2 ,_, excluding_VVG them_PPHO2 from_II further_JJR analysis_NN1 ._. 
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For_IF the_AT remaining_JJ answers_NN2 ,_, the_AT &bquo;_" Result_NN1 Sheet_NN1 &equo;_" ,_, also_RR in_II the_AT appendix_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ used_VVN to_TO help_VVI calculate_VVI the_AT mean_JJ reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 for_CS Yes_UH and_CC mean_JJ reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 for_IF No_AT answers_NN2 ._. 
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The_AT information_NN1 provided_VVN on_II the_AT &bquo;_" Results_NN2 Sheet_NN1 &equo;_" was_VBDZ used_VVN to_TO score_VVI the_AT recognition_NN1 sheet_NN1 ._. 
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This_DD1 simply_RR involved_VVN ticking_VVG in_II the_AT relevant_JJ box_NN1 if_CS the_AT subject_NN1 has_VHZ ticked_VVN the_AT correspondingly_RR numbered_JJ box_NN1 on_II the_AT &bquo;_" Recognition_NN1 Sheet_NN1 &equo;_" ,_, allowing_VVG the_AT experimenter_NN1 to_TO identify_VVI the_AT number_NN1 of_IO correctly_RR recognised_JJ words_NN2 in_II each_DD1 of_IO the_AT categories_NN2 ._. 
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Results_NN2 :_: Table_NN1 1_MC1 shows_VVZ the_AT means_NN and_CC standard_JJ deviations_NN2 of_IO reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 for_IF Yed_JJ and_CC No_AT answers_NN2 at_II each_DD1 level_NN1 of_IO processing_NN1 ._. 
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Figure_VV0 1_MC1 shows_VVZ the_AT graph_NN1 of_IO mean_JJ reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 against_II levels_NN2 of_IO processing_VVG for_IF each_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO response_NN1 ._. 
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From_II this_DD1 graph_NN1 it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN that_CST ,_, generally_RR ,_, as_CSA the_AT level_NN1 of_IO processing_NN1 increases_VVZ reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 increases_NN2 ._. 
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From_II Table_NN1 2_MC it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN that_CST there_EX a_AT1 significant_JJ main_JJ effect_NN1 for_IF level_NN1 of_IO processing_NN1 ,_, but_CCB no_AT significant_JJ main_JJ effect_NN1 for_IF type_NN1 of_IO response_NN1 ._. 
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Table_NN1 3_MC and_CC Table_NN1 4_MC both_RR show_VV0 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 significant_JJ increase_NN1 in_II reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 as_II the_AT levels_NN2 of_IO processing_NN1 increase_NN1 ._. 
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Table_NN1 2_MC also_RR shows_VVZ a_AT1 significant_JJ interaction_NN1 ._. 
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This_DD1 interaction_NN1 shows_VVZ the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO increase_NN1 in_II levels_NN2 of_IO processing_VVG on_II increase_NN1 in_II reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 as_CSA seen_VVN on_II the_AT graph_NN1 in_II Figure_NN1 1_MC1 ._. 
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Table_NN1 5_MC and_CC the_AT graph_NN1 in_II Figure_NN1 2_MC show_VV0 the_AT mean_JJ and_CC standard_JJ deviation_NN1 in_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 recognised_VVN for_IF Yes_UH and_CC No_AT answers_NN2 at_II different_JJ levels_NN2 of_IO processing_NN1 ._. 
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Level_VV0 1_MC1 was_VBDZ left_VVN out_RP from_II the_AT calculation_NN1 of_IO the_AT ANOVA_NN1 in_II Table_NN1 6_MC since_CS the_AT question_NN1 &bquo;_" was_VBDZ there_RL a_AT1 word_NN1 present_NN1 ?_? &equo;_" can_VM not_XX have_VHI a_AT1 non-zero_JJ entry_NN1 for_IF the_AT cell_NN1 corresponding_VVG to_II a_AT1 No_UH answer_VV0 ._. 
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As_CSA can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN from_II Table_NN1 6_MC ,_, there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 significant_JJ main_JJ effect_NN1 for_IF level_NN1 of_IO processing_VVG for_IF the_AT recognition_NN1 scores_NN2 ._. 
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Both_DB2 Table_NN1 7_MC and_CC Table_NN1 8_MC show_VV0 a_AT1 significant_JJ increase_NN1 in_II number_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 recognised_VVN as_II the_AT level_NN1 of_IO processing_VVG increases_NN2 ._. 
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Table_NN1 6_MC also_RR shows_VVZ a_AT1 significant_JJ main_JJ effect_NN1 for_IF type_NN1 of_IO response_NN1 ._. 
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Again_RT there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 significant_JJ interaction_NN1 ,_, as_CSA seen_VVN in_II Table_NN1 6_MC and_CC Figure_NN1 2_MC ,_, between_II the_AT levels_NN2 of_IO processing_NN1 variable_NN1 and_CC type_NN1 of_IO response_NN1 variable_NN1 ._. 
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As_II the_AT level_NN1 of_IO processing_VVG increases_NN2 ,_, the_AT increase_NN1 in_II positive_JJ recognition_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 increases_VVZ significantly_RR more_DAR than_CSN the_AT negative_JJ recognition_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 ._. 
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Discussion_NN1 From_II the_AT results_NN2 we_PPIS2 see_VV0 that_CST ,_, as_CSA predicted_VVN ,_, reaction_NN1 times_NNT2 are_VBR longer_JJR for_IF deeper_JJR levels_NN2 of_IO processing_NN1 ._. 
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This_DD1 is_VBZ shown_VVN in_II the_AT ANOVA_NN1 in_II Table_NN1 2_MC and_CC the_AT graph_NN1 in_II Figure_NN1 1_MC1 ._. 
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Table_NN1 3_MC and_CC Table_NN1 4_MC also_RR emphasise_VV0 the_AT significant_JJ increase_NN1 in_II reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 as_II the_AT level_NN1 of_IO processing_VVG increases_NN2 ._. 
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However_RR ,_, it_PPH1 should_VM also_RR be_VBI noted_VVN that_CST there_EX is_VBZ also_RR decrease_VV0 in_II reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 between_II levels_NN2 of_IO processing_NN1 of_IO 1_MC1 and_CC 2_MC ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ significant_JJ for_IF No_AT answers_NN2 ._. 
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It_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN that_CST words_NN2 processed_VVN at_II deeper_JJR levels_NN2 will_VM be_VBI better_JJR recognised_JJ than_CSN those_DD2 processed_VVN to_II only_RR a_AT1 shallow_JJ level_NN1 ._. 
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The_AT Anova_NP1 in_II Table_NN1 6_MC ;_; Table_NN1 7_MC and_CC Table_NN1 8_MC show_VV0 that_CST as_II the_AT level_NN1 of_IO processing_VVG increases_NN2 ,_, words_NN2 are_VBR better_RRR recognised_VVN ._. 
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This_DD1 is_VBZ due_II21 to_II22 deeper_JJR semantic_JJ encoding_NN1 of_IO the_AT word_NN1 in_II memory_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
These_DD2 results_NN2 support_VV0 Craik_NP1 's_GE proposal_NN1 that_CST both_DB2 reaction_NN1 time_NNT1 and_CC recognition_NN1 increase_NN1 as_II the_AT level_NN1 of_IO processing_VVG increases_NN2 ._. 
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It_PPH1 can_VM also_RR be_VBI seen_VVN from_II the_AT results_NN2 that_CST as_II the_AT level_NN1 of_IO processing_VVG increases_NN2 ,_, the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO recognise_VVI a_AT1 word_NN1 correctly_RR increasingly_RR exceeds_VVZ the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO recognise_VVI words_NN2 that_CST do_VD0 not_XX fulfill_VVI the_AT task_NN1 ._. 
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This_DD1 is_VBZ most_RGT likely_JJ because_CS the_AT word_NN1 is_VBZ retrieved_VVN from_II memory_NN1 upon_II sight_NN1 ._. 
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Words_NN2 recently_RR seen_VVN are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI remembered_VVN at_II deeper_JJR levels_NN2 of_IO processing_NN1 ._. 
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But_CCB again_RT ,_, due_II21 to_II22 the_AT depth_NN1 of_IO processing_NN1 ,_, words_NN2 that_CST are_VBR semantically_RR similar_JJ to_II those_DD2 in_II the_AT experiment_NN1 may_VM also_RR be_VBI recognised_VVN ._. 
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This_DD1 would_VM reduce_VVI the_AT number_NN1 of_IO &bquo;_" No_AT &equo;_" responses_NN2 ._. 
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Craik_NN1 and_CC Lockart_NP1 (_( 1972_MC )_) argued_VVD that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 direct_JJ relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT semanticity_NN1 of_IO processing_NN1 and_CC the_AT depth_NN1 of_IO processing_NN1 ._. 
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This_DD1 ,_, however_RR ,_, assumes_VVZ that_CST because_CS we_PPIS2 tend_VV0 to_TO process_VVI more_RGR semantic_JJ knowledge_NN1 than_CSN non-semantic_JJ knowledge_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 therefore_RR follows_VVZ that_CST semantic_JJ processing_NN1 is_VBZ equivalent_JJ to_II making_VVG use_NN1 of_IO previous_JJ knowledge_NN1 to_TO interpret_VVI presented_JJ stimuli_NN2 in_II a_AT1 meaningful_JJ fashion_NN1 ._. 
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This_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX necessarily_RR true_JJ ,_, though_CS ,_, as_CSA is_VBZ said_VVN by_II Stein_NP1 ,_, Morris_NP1 and_CC Bransford_NP1 (_( 1978_MC )_) :_: &bquo;_" rather_CS21 than_CS22 emphasise_VVI the_AT superiority_NN1 of_IO semantic_JJ over_II non-sematic_JJ processing_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI more_RGR useful_JJ to_TO ask_VVI how_RRQ people_NN use_VV0 what_DDQ they_PPHS2 know_VV0 (_( whether_CSW this_DD1 knowledge_NN1 is_VBZ non-semantic_JJ ,_, semantic_JJ ,_, etc._RA )_) to_II more_RGR precisely_RR encode_VV0 and_CC retain_VV0 information_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
APPENDIX_NN1 Kieran_NP1 Lee_NP1 November_NPM1 27_MC ,_, 1988_MC Tutor_NN1 :_: Andrew_NP1 Duncan_NP1 HOW_RRQ MANY_DA2 DIFFERENT_JJ TYPES_NN2 OF_IO LEARNING_NN1 ARE_VBR THERE_RL ?_? 
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ILLUSTRATE_VV0 WITH_IW EXAMPLES_NN2 AND/OR_CC EXPERIMENTAL_JJ EVIDENCE_NN1 HOW_RRQ MANY_DA2 DIFFERENT_JJ TYPES_NN2 OF_IO LEARNING_NN1 ARE_VBR THERE_RL ?_? 
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<s>
ILLUSTRATE_VV0 WITH_IW EXAMPLES_NN2 AND/OR_CC EXPERIMENTAL_JJ EVIDENCE_NN1 There_EX are_VBR two_MC general_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO learning_NN1 :_: genetically_RR prepared_JJ learning_NN1 ,_, e.g._REX instincts_NN2 ,_, and_CC associative_JJ learning_NN1 ,_, e.g._REX classical_JJ conditioning_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
For_IF the_AT purposes_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 essay_NN1 I_PPIS1 will_VM concentrate_VVI on_II associative_JJ learning_NN1 which_DDQ covers_VVZ what_DDQ is_VBZ popularly_RR defined_VVN as_CSA learning_VVG ,_, as_II31 opposed_II32 to_II33 genetic_JJ learning_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ instinctual_JJ ,_, hereditary_JJ behaviour_NN1 that_CST has_VHZ developed_VVN through_II evolution_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 often_RR prepares_VVZ organisms_NN2 for_IF associative_JJ learning_NN1 ._. 
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Examples_NN2 of_IO genetic_JJ or_CC prepared_JJ learning_NN1 are_VBR sensitisation_NN1 ,_, habituation_NN1 ,_, imprinting_VVG and_CC ,_, in_II humans_NN2 ,_, the_AT specialised_JJ physiology_NN1 required_VVN for_IF speech_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT most_RGT commonly_RR investigated_VVN types_NN2 of_IO associative_JJ learning_NN1 have_VH0 been_VBN divided_VVN into_II six_MC :_: classical_JJ conditioning_NN1 ,_, instrumental_JJ conditioning_NN1 ,_, latent_JJ learning_NN1 ,_, insight_NN1 ,_, vicarious_JJ conditioning_NN1 ,_, and_CC observational_JJ learning_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Classical_JJ conditioning_NN1 requires_VVZ the_AT combined_JJ occurrence_NN1 of_IO two_MC events_NN2 ;_; it_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 procedure_NN1 in_II which_DDQ a_AT1 neutral_JJ stimulus_NN1 is_VBZ paired_VVN with_IW a_AT1 stimulus_NN1 that_CST elicits_VVZ a_AT1 reflex_NN1 or_CC other_JJ response_NN1 until_CS the_AT neutral_JJ stimulus_NN1 alone_RR comes_VVZ to_TO elicit_VVI a_AT1 similar_JJ response_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT study_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 particular_JJ type_NN1 of_IO learning_NN1 was_VBDZ begun_VVN by_II Ivan_NP1 Petrovich_NP1 Pavlov_NP1 ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 devised_VVD an_AT1 experiment_NN1 to_TO ascertain_VVI whether_CSW salivation_NN1 could_VM occur_VVI in_II the_AT absence_NN1 of_IO any_DD obvious_JJ physical_JJ cause_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 placed_VVD a_AT1 dog_NN1 in_II an_AT1 acoustically_RR insulated_JJ room_NN1 and_CC fixed_VVN a_AT1 tube_NN1 to_II the_AT duct_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 salivary_JJ gland_NN1 through_II the_AT cheek_NN1 of_IO the_AT dog_NN1 to_TO divert_VVI its_APPGE saliva_NN1 into_II a_AT1 container_NN1 ,_, in_BCL21 order_BCL22 that_CST the_AT amount_NN1 secreted_VVN could_VM be_VBI measured_VVN precisely_RR ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 then_RT carried_VVD out_RP an_AT1 experiment_NN1 in_II three_MC phases_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
In_II the_AT first_MD phase_NN1 he_PPHS1 confirmed_VVD that_CST when_CS meat_NN1 powder_NN1 (_( an_AT1 unconditioned_JJ stimulus_NN1 )_) was_VBDZ placed_VVN on_II the_AT dog_NN1 's_GE tongue_NN1 a_AT1 natural_JJ reflex_NN1 occurred_VVD and_CC the_AT dog_NN1 salivated_VVD (_( an_AT1 unconditioned_JJ response_NN1 )_) ,_, but_CCB that_CST it_PPH1 did_VDD not_XX salivate_VVI solely_RR in_II31 response_II32 to_II33 a_AT1 buzzer_NN1 sounded_VVN for_IF 30_MC seconds_NNT2 ,_, a_AT1 neutral_JJ stimulus_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 neutral_JJ stimulus_NN1 showed_VVD an_AT1 orienting_JJ response_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ indicated_VVD that_CST the_AT dog_NN1 was_VBDZ paying_VVG attention_NN1 ._. 
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In_II the_AT second_MD phase_NN1 of_IO the_AT experiment_NN1 Pavlov_NP1 sounded_VVD a_AT1 buzzer_NN1 and_CC immediately_RR placed_VVN meat_NN1 powder_NN1 in_II the_AT dog_NN1 's_GE mouth_NN1 ._. 
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The_AT dog_NN1 then_RT salivated_VVD ._. 
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This_DD1 pairing_NN1 sequence_NN1 was_VBDZ repeated_VVN several_DA2 times_NNT2 ._. 
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<s>
In_II the_AT final_JJ phase_NN1 of_IO the_AT experiment_NN1 ,_, the_AT buzzer_NN1 (_( a_AT1 conditioned_JJ stimulus_NN1 )_) sounded_VVD and_CC the_AT dog_NN1 salivated_VVD after_II a_AT1 few_DA2 seconds_NNT2 without_IW the_AT presence_NN1 of_IO any_DD meat_NN1 powder_NN1 (_( conditioned_JJ response_NN1 )_) ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 process_NN1 is_VBZ called_VVN acquisition_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Once_RR a_AT1 conditioned_JJ response_NN1 develops_VVZ ,_, stimuli_NN2 that_CST are_VBR similar_JJ but_CCB not_XX identical_JJ to_II the_AT conditioned_JJ stimulus_NN1 are_VBR found_VVN to_TO elicit_VVI a_AT1 similar_JJ response_NN1 ._. 
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This_DD1 is_VBZ called_VVN stimulus_NN1 generalisation_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Usually_RR the_AT greater_JJR the_AT similarity_NN1 between_II a_AT1 new_JJ stimulus_NN1 and_CC the_AT conditioned_JJ stimulus_NN1 ,_, the_AT stronger_JJR the_AT conditioned_JJ response_NN1 will_VM be_VBI ,_, e.g._REX if_CS the_AT conditioned_JJ response_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 reaction_NN1 to_II hearing_VVG the_AT note_NN1 middle_NN1 C_ZZ1 and_CC you_PPY change_VV0 the_AT note_NN1 response_NN1 is_VBZ weakened_VVN gradually_RR ._. 
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<s>
The_AT effect_NN1 of_IO stimulus_NN1 generalisation_NN1 is_VBZ balanced_VVN by_II a_AT1 process_NN1 known_VVN as_II stimulus_NN1 discrimination_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Through_II this_DD1 ,_, people_NN can_VM differentiate_VVI between_II similar_JJ stimuli_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, mothers_NN2 learn_VV0 to_TO distinguish_VVI between_II the_AT crying_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE own_DA babies_NN2 and_CC the_AT crying_NN1 of_IO others_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
In_II humans_NN2 another_DD1 example_NN1 of_IO classical_JJ conditioning_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT fear_NN1 of_IO the_AT dark_NN1 as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO being_VBG frightened_VVN as_II a_AT1 child_NN1 (_( perhaps_RR by_II a_AT1 sibling_NN1 )_) ._. 
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In_II instrumental_JJ conditioning_NN1 ,_, the_AT combined_JJ occurrence_NN1 of_IO three_MC events_NN2 is_VBZ necessary_JJ ;_; these_DD2 three_MC events_NN2 are_VBR the_AT stimulus_NN1 ,_, the_AT response_NN1 or_CC operant_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT reinforcement_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
An_AT1 operant_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 piece_NN1 of_IO behaviour_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ a_AT1 spontaneous_JJ nature_NN1 which_DDQ occurs_VVZ at_II a_AT1 predetermined_JJ frequency_NN1 ._. 
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A_AT1 reinforcer_NN1 is_VBZ something_PN1 which_DDQ changes_VVZ the_AT rate_NN1 of_IO occurrence_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 operant_NN1 ._. 
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There_EX are_VBR positive_JJ and_CC negative_JJ reinforcers_NN2 which_DDQ increase_VV0 and_CC decrease_VV0 this_DD1 rate_NN1 of_IO occurrence_NN1 respectively_RR ._. 
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One_MC1 example_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 were_VBDR the_AT experiments_NN2 of_IO Edward_NP1 L._NP1 Thorndyke_NP1 who_PNQS put_VVD an_AT1 animal_NN1 ,_, usually_RR a_AT1 cat_NN1 ,_, in_II a_AT1 wooden_JJ puzzle_NN1 box_NN1 where_CS it_PPH1 had_VHD to_TO learn_VVI a_AT1 response_NN1 ,_, e.g._REX stepping_VVG on_II a_AT1 lever_NN1 to_TO unlock_VVI the_AT door_NN1 and_CC get_VVI out_RP ._. 
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When_CS the_AT cat_NN1 was_VBDZ successful_JJ it_PPH1 was_VBDZ rewarded_VVN with_IW food_NN1 and_CC then_RT placed_VVN back_RP inside_II the_AT box_NN1 ._. 
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After_CS several_DA2 trials_NN2 ,_, the_AT cat_NN1 managed_VVD to_TO get_VVI out_RP almost_RR immediately_RR to_TO get_VVI the_AT reward_NN1 ._. 
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Thorndyke_NP1 took_VVD pictures_NN2 of_IO what_DDQ the_AT cats_NN2 were_VBDR doing_VDG at_II the_AT time_NNT1 they_PPHS2 escaped_VVD ._. 
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These_DD2 showed_VVD the_AT cats_NN2 rolled_VVD around_RP on_II their_APPGE backs_NN2 and_CC hit_VVD the_AT mechanism_NN1 with_IW various_JJ parts_NN2 of_IO their_APPGE bodies_NN2 and_CC not_XX just_RR one_MC1 on_II different_JJ occasions_NN2 ._. 
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This_DD1 was_VBDZ due_II21 to_II22 the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST rolling_VVG always_RR eventually_RR caused_VVD the_AT opening_NN1 of_IO the_AT cage_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Thus_RR the_AT response_NN1 was_VBDZ more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO occur_VVI as_CSA they_PPHS2 were_VBDR able_JK to_TO get_VVI the_AT reward_NN1 by_II trial_NN1 and_CC error_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 called_VVD this_DD1 the_AT law_NN1 of_IO effect_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
According_II21 to_II22 this_DD1 law_NN1 ,_, if_CS a_AT1 response_NN1 made_VVN in_II the_AT presence_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 particular_JJ stimulus_NN1 is_VBZ followed_VVN by_II a_AT1 reward_NN1 ,_, that_DD1 same_DA response_NN1 is_VBZ more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI made_VVN the_AT next_MD time_NNT1 the_AT stimulus_NN1 is_VBZ encountered_VVN ._. 
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<s>
Responses_NN2 that_CST are_VBR not_XX rewarded_VVN are_VBR less_RGR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI performed_VVN again_RT ._. 
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<s>
B.F._NP1 Skinner_NP1 emphasised_VVD that_CST during_II instrumental_JJ conditioning_NN1 an_AT1 organism_NN1 learns_VVZ a_AT1 response_NN1 by_II operating_VVG on_II its_APPGE environment_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 developed_VVD an_AT1 experimental_JJ chamber_NN1 called_VVN the_AT Skinner_NP1 Box_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ contains_VVZ a_AT1 device_NN1 that_CST an_AT1 animal_NN1 can_VM operate_VVI to_TO get_VVI a_AT1 reward_NN1 ,_, e.g._REX rats_NN2 are_VBR usually_RR placed_VVN in_II a_AT1 Skinner_NN1 Box_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ a_AT1 lever_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
When_CS the_AT lever_NN1 is_VBZ pressed_VVN ,_, a_AT1 food_NN1 pellet_NN1 drops_VVZ through_II a_AT1 thin_JJ tube_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT rats_NN2 eventually_RR managed_VVN to_TO press_VVI the_AT lever_NN1 very_RG quickly_RR after_II being_VBG placed_VVN in_II the_AT box_NN1 ,_, in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO receive_VVI their_APPGE reward_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ an_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 free_JJ operant_JJ task_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
There_EX are_VBR a_AT1 few_DA2 other_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO experimental_JJ instrumental_JJ conditioning_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 discrete_JJ trials_NN2 and_CC shaping_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Learning_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX always_RR used_VVN as_CS31 soon_CS32 as_CS33 it_PPH1 is_VBZ acquired_VVN :_: Edward_NP1 Tolman_NP1 gave_VVD experimental_JJ evidence_NN1 for_IF this_DD1 latent_JJ learning_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Tolman_NN1 placed_VVN three_MC groups_NN2 of_IO rats_NN2 in_II a_AT1 maze_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
One_MC1 group_NN1 was_VBDZ reinforced_VVN with_IW food_NN1 after_II each_DD1 trial_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 second_MD group_NN1 was_VBDZ never_RR reinforced_VVN ,_, and_CC a_AT1 third_MD was_VBDZ given_VVN a_AT1 reinforcement_NN1 only_RR after_II the_AT eleventh_MD day_NNT1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT mean_JJ number_NN1 of_IO errors_NN2 made_VVN during_II each_DD1 trial_NN1 was_VBDZ calculated_VVN for_IF each_DD1 group_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 found_VVD that_CST although_CS the_AT rats_NN2 in_II the_AT third_MD group_NN1 made_VVD many_DA2 errors_NN2 until_CS the_AT eleventh_MD day_NNT1 ,_, upon_II reinforcement_NN1 on_II this_DD1 day_NNT1 they_PPHS2 made_VVD almost_RR no_AT mistakes_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT rats_NN2 could_VM not_XX have_VHI had_VHN their_APPGE learning_NN1 affected_VVN by_II the_AT reinforcement_NN1 on_II the_AT eleventh_MD day_NNT1 ,_, it_PPH1 simply_RR changed_VVD their_APPGE subsequent_JJ performance_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT rats_NN2 must_VM have_VHI learned_VVN the_AT maze_NN1 earlier_RRR and_CC were_VBDR demonstrating_VVG latent_JJ learning_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Also_RR ,_, because_CS the_AT rats_NN2 &equo;_" behaviour_NN1 changed_VVD immediately_RR after_II the_AT first_MD reinforcement_NN1 trial_NN1 ,_, Tolman_NP1 argued_VVD that_CST the_AT results_NN2 obtained_VVN could_VM only_RR occur_VVI if_CSW the_AT rats_NN2 had_VHD earlier_RRR developed_VVN a_AT1 cognitive_JJ map_NN1 ,_, that_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT mental_JJ representation_NN1 of_IO the_AT particular_JJ special_JJ arrangement_NN1 of_IO the_AT maze_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT rats_NN2 used_VVD their_APPGE cognitive_JJ maps_NN2 to_TO achieve_VVI the_AT goal_NN1 ,_, showing_VVG they_PPHS2 had_VHD learned_VVN the_AT maze_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Wolfgang_NP1 Kohler_NP1 argued_VVD that_CST the_AT problems_NN2 Thorndyke_NP1 had_VHD set_VVN for_IF his_APPGE cats_NN2 determined_VVN the_AT type_NN1 of_IO learning_NN1 they_PPHS2 demonstrated_VVD ._. 
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<s>
Thorndyke_NP1 's_GE puzzle_NN1 box_NN1 forced_JJ animals_NN2 to_TO use_VVI a_AT1 trial_NN1 and_CC error_NN1 strategy_NN1 in_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 eventually_RR had_VHN to_TO happen_VVI on_II an_AT1 answer_NN1 through_II associations_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Kohler_NP1 thought_VVD that_DD1 insight_NN1 ,_, or_CC sudden_JJ understanding_NN1 about_II what_DDQ is_VBZ required_VVN to_TO produce_VVI a_AT1 desired_JJ effect_NN1 was_VBDZ shown_VVN by_II the_AT chimpanzees_NN2 in_II his_APPGE experiments_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 put_VVD a_AT1 chimpanzee_NN1 in_II a_AT1 cage_NN1 and_CC placed_VVN a_AT1 piece_NN1 of_IO fruit_NN outside_II the_AT cage_NN1 so_CS21 that_CS22 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ visible_JJ ,_, but_CCB out_II21 of_II22 reach_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Many_DA2 chimpanzees_NN2 overcame_VVD these_DD2 obstacles_NN2 easily_RR ,_, e.g._REX if_CS the_AT fruit_NN was_VBDZ on_II the_AT ground_NN1 outside_II the_AT cage_NN1 ,_, the_AT chimpanzee_NN1 might_VM thrust_VVI his_APPGE arm_NN1 through_II the_AT cage_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
When_CS this_DD1 was_VBDZ unsuccessful_JJ it_PPH1 would_VM look_VVI around_II the_AT cage_NN1 where_CS there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 long_JJ stick_NN1 and_CC suddenly_RR it_PPH1 would_VM decide_VVI to_TO use_VVI it_PPH1 to_TO rake_VVI in_II the_AT fruit_NN ._. 
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<s>
Kohler_NP1 tried_VVD more_RGR difficult_JJ tasks_NN2 and_CC again_RT the_AT chimpanzees_NN2 proved_VVD very_RG adept_JJ ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 thought_VVD that_CST something_PN1 more_DAR than_CSN automatic_JJ associations_NN2 were_VBDR made_VVN as_CSA he_PPHS1 observed_VVD that_CST the_AT chimpanzees_NN2 seemed_VVD to_TO understand_VVI the_AT principle_NN1 in_II solving_VVG the_AT problems_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 believed_VVD that_CST the_AT only_JJ explanation_NN1 for_IF these_DD2 results_NN2 was_VBDZ the_AT chimpanzees_NN2 suddenly_RR saw_VVN new_JJ relationships_NN2 that_CST were_VBDR never_RR learned_VVN in_II the_AT past_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT relationship_NN1 between_II a_AT1 response_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE consequences_NN2 ,_, or_CC the_AT association_NN1 between_II a_AT1 conditioned_JJ stimulus_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 conditioned_JJ response_NN1 learned_VVN by_II watching_VVG others_NN2 is_VBZ described_VVN as_CSA vicarious_JJ conditioning_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Albert_NP1 Bandura_NP1 devised_VVD an_AT1 experiment_NN1 to_TO show_VVI this_DD1 ,_, which_DDQ also_RR highlighted_VVN observational_JJ learning_NN1 ,_, the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO learn_VVI new_JJ behaviours_NN2 by_II watching_VVG the_AT behaviour_NN1 of_IO others_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
In_II his_APPGE experiment_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 showed_VVD nursery_NN1 school_NN1 children_NN2 a_AT1 short_JJ film_NN1 featuring_VVG an_AT1 adult_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 &bquo;_" Bobo_NN1 &equo;_" doll_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT adult_NN1 in_II the_AT film_NN1 punched_VVD ,_, kicked_VVD ,_, and_CC threw_VVD things_NN2 at_II the_AT Bobo_NN1 doll_NN1 ,_, and_CC hit_VVD its_APPGE head_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 hammer_NN1 while_CS saying_VVG things_NN2 like_VV0 ,_, &bquo;_" Whammo_NP1 !_! &equo;_" 
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<s>
There_EX were_VBDR different_JJ endings_NN2 to_II the_AT film_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Some_DD children_NN2 saw_VVD an_AT1 ending_NN1 where_CS the_AT aggressive_JJ adult_NN1 was_VBDZ called_VVN a_AT1 &bquo;_" champion_NN1 &equo;_" ,_, some_DD saw_VVD the_AT aggressor_NN1 being_VBG berated_VVN ,_, and_CC others_NN2 saw_VVD an_AT1 ending_NN1 where_CS there_EX was_VBDZ neither_RR a_AT1 reward_NN1 nor_CC a_AT1 punishment_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
After_CS the_AT film_NN1 ,_, each_DD1 child_NN1 was_VBDZ left_VVN alone_JJ in_II a_AT1 room_NN1 to_TO play_VVI with_IW a_AT1 Bobo_NN1 doll_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Bandura_NP1 found_VVD the_AT imitation_NN1 of_IO the_AT adult_NN1 in_II the_AT film_NN1 was_VBDZ found_VVN to_TO be_VBI greatest_JJT amongst_II the_AT children_NN2 who_PNQS had_VHD seen_VVN the_AT aggressive_JJ adult_NN1 being_VBG rewarded_VVN ._. 
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<s>
Thus_RR ,_, the_AT reinforcement_NN1 that_CST the_AT children_NN2 saw_VVD in_II the_AT film_NN1 ,_, but_CCB did_VDD not_XX directly_RR experience_VVI ,_, influenced_VVN their_APPGE behaviour_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Observational_JJ learning_NN1 was_VBDZ seen_VVN as_RG many_DA2 children_NN2 imitated_VVD the_AT behaviour_NN1 of_IO the_AT adult_NN1 in_II the_AT film_NN1 punch_NN1 by_II punch_NN1 and_CC kick_VV0 for_IF kick_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Children_NN2 who_PNQS had_VHD seen_VVN the_AT ending_NN1 of_IO the_AT film_NN1 were_VBDR the_AT aggressor_NN1 was_VBDZ berated_VVN were_VBDR just_RR as_RG aggressive_JJ if_CS rewarded_VVN with_IW candy_NN1 for_IF every_AT1 act_NN1 they_PPHS2 could_VM re-create_VVI from_II the_AT film_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
All_DB learning_NN1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN to_TO affect_VVI the_AT behaviour_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 organism_NN1 if_CS by_II eliciting_VVG this_DD1 behaviour_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ rewarded_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
When_RRQ organisms_NN2 learn_VV0 naturally_RR it_PPH1 is_VBZ usually_RR through_II a_AT1 mixture_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 and_CC other_JJ slightly_RR different_JJ types_NN2 of_IO learning_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Humans_NN2 have_VH0 developed_VVN some_DD very_RG specialised_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO learning_VVG for_IF use_NN1 in_II schools_NN2 ,_, to_TO encourage_VVI students_NN2 to_TO make_VVI best_RRT use_VV0 of_IO their_APPGE memories_NN2 and_CC analytical_JJ capabilities_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Kieran_NP1 Lee_NP1 January_NPM1 28_MC ,_, 1989_MC Tutor_NN1 :_: Andrew_NP1 Duncan_NP1 DID_VDD FREUD_NP1 OVERESTIMATE_VVI THE_AT IMPORTANCE_NN1 OF_IO SEX_NN1 IN_II HUMAN_JJ PSYCHOLOGY_NN1 ?_? 
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<s>
To_TO consider_VVI whether_CSW Freud_NP1 overestimated_VVD the_AT importance_NN1 of_IO sex_NN1 in_II human_JJ psychology_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO consider_VVI exactly_RR what_DDQ Freud_NP1 said_VVD about_II sex_NN1 in_II human_JJ psychology_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
After_CS this_DD1 it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI possible_JJ to_TO evaluate_VVI whether_CSW he_PPHS1 did_VDD overestimate_VVI its_APPGE importance_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Freud_NP1 began_VVD to_TO develop_VVI his_APPGE theories_NN2 in_II 1886_MC during_II the_AT Victorian_JJ Age_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 time_NNT1 when_RRQ it_PPH1 was_VBDZ socially_RR unacceptable_JJ to_TO discuss_VVI sex_NN1 ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 was_VBDZ considered_VVN that_DD1 woman_NN1 and_CC children_NN2 should_VM be_VBI seen_VVN and_CC not_XX heard_VVN ._. 
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<s>
Most_DAT of_IO his_APPGE patients_NN2 were_VBDR middle-class_JJ women_NN2 who_PNQS suffered_VVD from_II hysteria_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Psychiatry_NN1 was_VBDZ new_JJ and_CC had_VHD only_RR been_VBN in_II practice_NN1 since_II 1879_MC ;_; neuroses_NN2 and_CC psychoses_NN2 were_VBDR thought_VVN to_TO be_VBI untreatable_JJ ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 ,_, combined_VVN with_IW the_AT sexism_NN1 of_IO the_AT time_NNT1 ,_, led_VVD other_JJ psychiatrists_NN2 to_TO take_VVI their_APPGE symptoms_NN2 to_TO be_VBI the_AT result_NN1 of_IO the_AT natural_JJ inferiority_NN1 and_CC brain_NN1 degeneracy_NN1 of_IO women_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Freud_NP1 ,_, however_RR ,_, did_VDD not_XX hold_VVI this_DD1 view_NN1 and_CC hoped_VVD to_TO find_VVI the_AT true_JJ root_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE patients_NN2 '_GE hysteria_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Freud_NP1 originally_RR used_VVD the_AT technique_NN1 of_IO hypnosis_NN1 which_DDQ he_PPHS1 had_VHD adopted_VVN from_II a_AT1 friend_NN1 of_IO his_PPGE ,_, Joseph_NP1 Breuer_NP1 ,_, with_IW whom_PNQO he_PPHS1 wrote_VVD &bquo;_" Studies_NN2 in_II Hysteria_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
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<s>
Breuer_NP1 had_VHD himself_PPX1 borrowed_VVN this_DD1 technique_NN1 from_II the_AT French_JJ psychiatrist_NN1 ,_, Charcot_NP1 ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 used_VVD hypnosis_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO suggest_VVI away_RL the_AT patient_NN1 's_GE symptoms_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Freud_NP1 later_RRR developed_VVD the_AT technique_NN1 of_IO free_JJ association_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 triumph_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ often_RR neglected_VVN in_II the_AT discussion_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE controversial_JJ theories_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 tried_VVD to_TO break_VVI down_RP the_AT father-role_JJ position_NN1 doctors_NN2 held_VVD ,_, so_CS the_AT patients_NN2 could_VM feel_VVI more_RGR relaxed_JJ and_CC see_VVI him_PPHO1 almost_RR as_II an_AT1 equal_JJ ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 tried_VVD to_TO get_VVI them_PPHO2 to_TO say_VVI whatever_DDQV was_VBDZ on_II their_APPGE minds_NN2 and_CC by_II following_VVG certain_JJ lines_NN2 of_IO thought_NN1 tried_VVD to_TO trace_VVI the_AT root_NN1 of_IO the_AT hysteria_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 technique_NN1 of_IO free_JJ association_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 contribution_NN1 to_II psychology_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ used_VVN widely_RR by_II psychotherapists_NN2 ,_, including_II behaviourists_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Using_VVG this_DD1 technique_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 often_RR traced_VVD the_AT symptoms_NN2 back_RP to_II the_AT early_JJ years_NNT2 of_IO the_AT patients_NN2 '_GE life_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT patients_NN2 would_VM often_RR recollect_VVI having_VHG been_VBN sexually_RR abused_VVN by_II an_AT1 adult_NN1 ;_; for_IF most_DAT of_IO his_APPGE female_JJ patients_NN2 this_DD1 adult_NN1 abuser_NN1 was_VBDZ the_AT father_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 later_RRR discovered_VVD that_CST most_DAT of_IO these_DD2 scenes_NN2 had_VHD never_RR actually_RR occurred_VVN and_CC had_VHD been_VBN fantasies_NN2 of_IO the_AT patient_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 he_PPHS1 decided_VVD &bquo;_" psychic_JJ reality_NN1 &equo;_" could_VM be_VBI just_RR as_RG powerful_JJ a_AT1 source_NN1 for_IF the_AT development_NN1 of_IO neurotic_JJ symptoms_NN2 as_CSA &bquo;_" physical_JJ reality_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 also_RR discovered_VVD that_CST ,_, in_II the_AT majority_NN1 of_IO cases_NN2 ,_, any_DD sexual_JJ encounters_NN2 that_CST the_AT patients_NN2 had_VHD really_RR had_VHN in_II childhood_NN1 were_VBDR with_IW other_JJ children_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
As_CSA these_DD2 sexual_JJ fantasies_NN2 and_CC encounters_NN2 had_VHD occurred_VVN from_II childhood_NN1 ,_, sexuality_NN1 must_VM have_VHI been_VBN present_JJ ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 led_VVD him_PPHO1 to_TO believe_VVI what_DDQ is_VBZ now_RT scientifically_RR substantiated_VVN ,_, that_DD1 sex_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 integral_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT being_NN1 from_II birth_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 believed_VVD that_CST the_AT sexuality_NN1 of_IO man_NN1 ,_, unlike_II any_DD other_JJ animal_NN1 ,_, developed_VVN in_II two_MC waves_NN2 and_CC this_DD1 could_VM explain_VVI man_NN1 's_GE susceptibility_NN1 to_II neuroses_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
In_II the_AT first_MD wave_NN1 ,_, Freud_NP1 said_VVD ,_, a_AT1 child_NN1 goes_VVZ through_II a_AT1 series_NN of_IO phases_NN2 centring_VVG on_II various_JJ erogenous_JJ or_CC erotogenic_JJ zones_NN2 of_IO the_AT child_NN1 's_GE body_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
These_DD2 are_VBR referred_VVN to_II as_II the_AT oral_NN1 ,_, anal_JJ ,_, and_CC phallic_JJ phases_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
If_CS anything_PN1 unusual_JJ occurs_VVZ at_II one_MC1 of_IO these_DD2 phases_NN2 a_AT1 fixation_NN1 at_II the_AT relevant_JJ phase_NN1 occurs_VVZ ._. 
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<s>
The_AT phase_NN1 at_II which_DDQ a_AT1 fixation_NN1 occurs_VVZ can_VM determine_VVI the_AT form_NN1 in_II which_DDQ a_AT1 neurosis_NN1 appears_VVZ in_II later_JJR life_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT oral_JJ phase_NN1 occurs_VVZ in_RP about_II the_AT first_MD year_NNT1 of_IO a_AT1 child_NN1 's_GE life_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
In_II this_DD1 phase_NN1 the_AT centre_NN1 of_IO sensual_JJ pleasure_NN1 for_IF the_AT child_NN1 is_VBZ found_VVN in_II the_AT mouth_NN1 ,_, thus_RR the_AT child_NN1 enjoys_VVZ placing_VVG various_JJ things_NN2 in_II his/her_APPGE mouth_NN1 ,_, sucking_VVG his/her_APPGE thumb_NN1 ,_, etc_RA ._. 
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<s>
Fixation_NN1 at_II this_DD1 stage_NN1 might_VM result_VVI in_II dependence_NN1 on_II others_NN2 ,_, talking_VVG too_RG much_DA1 ,_, overeating_VVG ,_, alcoholism_NN1 ,_, cynicism_NN1 ,_, or_CC use_NN1 of_IO sarcasm_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT next_MD phase_NN1 ,_, the_AT anal_JJ phase_NN1 ,_, usually_RR occurs_VVZ during_II the_AT second_MD year_NNT1 of_IO the_AT child_NN1 's_GE life_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT centre_NN1 of_IO sensual_JJ pleasure_NN1 becomes_VVZ the_AT anus_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Fixation_NN1 at_II this_DD1 stage_NN1 may_VM result_VVI if_CSW toilet_NN1 training_NN1 is_VBZ too_RG harsh_JJ and_CC demanding_VVG or_CC is_VBZ begun_VVN too_RG early_JJ or_CC too_RG late_JJ ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 fixation_NN1 may_VM manifest_VVI itself_PPX1 in_II adulthood_NN1 in_II one_MC1 of_IO two_MC extremes_NN2 ;_; either_DD1 stinginess_NN1 ,_, orderliness_NN1 ,_, and_CC excessive_JJ cleanliness_NN1 or_CC sloppiness_NN1 ,_, lack_NN1 of_IO organisation_NN1 ,_, and_CC impulsiveness_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Indeed_RR ,_, my_APPGE aunt_NN1 for_REX21 instance_REX22 was_VBDZ toilet-trained_JJ by_II the_AT age_NN1 of_IO one_MC1 and_CC is_VBZ excessively_RR organised_VVN ._. 
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<s>
In_II the_AT phallic_JJ phase_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ occurs_VVZ between_II the_AT ages_NN2 of_IO three_MC and_CC five_MC ,_, the_AT principal_JJ erogenous_JJ zone_NN1 becomes_VVZ the_AT genitals_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
During_II this_DD1 phase_NN1 the_AT sexual_JJ instincts_NN2 (_( or_CC libido_NN1 )_) of_IO a_AT1 boy_NN1 cause_VV0 the_AT child_NN1 to_TO desire_VVI his_APPGE mother_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT boy_NN1 feels_VVZ hostile_JJ towards_II his_APPGE father_NN1 as_CSA he_PPHS1 believes_VVZ he_PPHS1 is_VBZ a_AT1 rival_NN1 for_IF his_APPGE mother_NN1 's_GE intentions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Freud_NP1 named_VVD this_DD1 the_AT Oedipus_NP1 Complex_NN1 after_II the_AT character_NN1 in_II the_AT Greek_JJ dramatist_NN1 Sophocles_NP1 '_GE legendary_JJ &bquo;_" Oedipus_NP1 Rex_NP1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT boy_NN1 fears_VVZ retaliation_NN1 from_II his_APPGE father_NN1 ,_, manifesting_VVG itself_PPX1 in_II the_AT &bquo;_" castration_NN1 syndrome_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 the_AT boy_NN1 represses_VVZ his_APPGE sexual_JJ desires_NN2 towards_II his_APPGE mother_NN1 and_CC identifies_VVZ with_IW the_AT sexual_JJ role_NN1 of_IO the_AT male_NN1 portrayed_VVN by_II his_APPGE father_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 female_JJ child_NN1 begins_VVZ with_IW a_AT1 strong_JJ attachment_NN1 to_II her_APPGE mother_NN1 ,_, but_CCB realises_VVZ that_CST neither_RR she_PPHS1 nor_CC her_APPGE mother_NN1 possesses_VVZ a_AT1 penis_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
She_PPHS1 blames_VVZ her_APPGE mother_NN1 for_IF this_DD1 and_CC sees_VVZ it_PPH1 as_II a_AT1 sign_NN1 of_IO inferiority_NN1 ,_, thus_RR experiencing_VVG penis_NN1 envy_NN1 and_CC transfers_VVZ her_APPGE affections_NN2 to_II her_APPGE father_NN1 as_CSA he_PPHS1 has_VHZ the_AT penis_NN1 she_PPHS1 wants_VVZ ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO avoid_VVI her_APPGE mother_NN1 's_GE disapproval_NN1 she_PPHS1 identifies_VVZ with_IW her_APPGE mother_NN1 ,_, adopting_VVG female_JJ sex_NN1 roles_NN2 and_CC subsequently_RR choosing_VVG a_AT1 male_JJ mate_NN1 in_II the_AT place_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE father_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
After_CS this_DD1 phase_NN1 there_EX follows_VVZ what_DDQ Freud_NP1 described_VVD as_II a_AT1 period_NN1 of_IO latency_NN1 during_II which_DDQ the_AT sexuality_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 child_NN1 lies_VVZ dormant_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT second_MD wave_NN1 occurs_VVZ at_II puberty_NN1 when_CS the_AT young_JJ person_NN1 looks_VVZ for_IF a_AT1 sexual_JJ partner_NN1 ,_, and_CC if_CS there_EX has_VHZ been_VBN minimum_JJ conflict_NN1 during_II the_AT phallic_JJ phase_NN1 this_DD1 is_VBZ of_IO the_AT opposite_JJ sex_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX is_VBZ scientific_JJ evidence_NN1 for_IF sexuality_NN1 in_II children_NN2 as_CSA studies_NN2 show_VV0 that_CST two_MC to_II three_MC year_NNT1 old_JJ boys_NN2 have_VH0 regularly_RR recurring_JJ erections_NN2 during_II REM_NN1 periods_NN2 of_IO sleep_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 phenemomenon_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR present_JJ in_II adult_NN1 males_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Also_RR a_AT1 friend_NN1 of_IO mine_PPGE has_VHZ a_AT1 two_MC year_NNT1 old_JJ brother_NN1 who_PNQS tries_VVZ to_TO have_VHI sex_NN1 with_IW his_APPGE teddy_NN1 bear_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Many_DA2 of_IO Freud_NP1 's_GE interpretations_NN2 of_IO behaviour_NN1 resulting_VVG from_II these_DD2 phases_NN2 are_VBR so_RR taken_VVN for_IF granted_VVN that_CST they_PPHS2 are_VBR no_RR21 longer_RR22 recognised_VVN ,_, e.g._REX tight-ass_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 slang_NN1 expression_NN1 for_IF Freud_NP1 's_GE description_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 anal_JJ character_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Freud_NP1 believed_VVD the_AT ancient_JJ theory_NN1 that_CST dreams_NN2 are_VBR symbolic_JJ was_VBDZ true_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 analysed_VVD the_AT dreams_NN2 of_IO both_RR himself_PPX1 and_CC his_APPGE patients_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 discovered_VVD that_CST dreams_NN2 covered-up_JJ the_AT urges_NN2 of_IO one_PN1 's_GE instincts_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 devised_VVD a_AT1 system_NN1 of_IO symbols_NN2 which_DDQ he_PPHS1 found_VVD in_II dreams_NN2 to_TO represent_VVI more_RGR unbearable_JJ things_NN2 which_DDQ did_VDD not_XX themselves_PPX2 appear_VVI in_II the_AT dreams_NN2 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 not_XX to_TO disrupt_VVI sleep_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Many_DA2 of_IO these_DD2 symbols_NN2 represented_VVD the_AT male_NN1 and_CC female_JJ unclothed_JJ body_NN1 ,_, male_JJ and_CC female_JJ sexual_JJ organs_NN2 ,_, siblings_NN2 ,_, parents_NN2 ,_, birth_NN1 ,_, death_NN1 ,_, masturbation_NN1 ,_, and_CC sexual_JJ intercourse_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Despite_II what_DDQ many_DA2 people_NN claim_VV0 ,_, however_RR ,_, Freud_NP1 did_VDD not_XX say_VVI that_DD1 dream_NN1 interpretation_NN1 shows_VVZ that_CST all_DB dreams_NN2 have_VH0 a_AT1 sexual_JJ content_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 also_RR said_VVD that_CST &bquo;_" it_PPH1 is_VBZ easy_JJ to_TO see_VVI that_DD1 hunger_NN1 ,_, thirst_VV0 ,_, or_CC the_AT need_NN1 to_TO excrete_VVI ,_, can_VM produce_VVI dreams_NN2 of_IO satisfaction_NN1 just_RR as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 any_DD repressed_JJ sexual_JJ impulse_NN1 ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
Towards_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE career_NN1 Freud_NP1 developed_VVD the_AT idea_NN1 of_IO the_AT parapraxis_NN1 ,_, generally_RR referred_VVN to_II as_II the_AT &bquo;_" Freudian_JJ Slip_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 parapraxis_NN1 need_VM not_XX necessarily_RR be_VBI vocal_JJ ,_, it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI written_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Misplacing_VVG something_PN1 is_VBZ also_RR an_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 parapraxis_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 believed_VVD that_CST many_DA2 of_IO these_DD2 slips_NN2 revealed_VVD some_DD kind_NN1 of_IO sexual_JJ subconscious_NN1 which_DDQ suddenly_RR &bquo;_" accidentally_RR &equo;_" is_VBZ brought_VVN to_II the_AT conscious_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Many_DA2 people_NN today_RT still_RR see_VV0 Freud_NP1 as_CSA some_DD kind_NN1 of_IO sexual_JJ pervert_NN1 ,_, taking_VVG his_APPGE theories_NN2 to_TO be_VBI rather_RG far-fetched_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ mainly_RR based_VVN on_II common_JJ hear-say_NN1 as_CSA many_DA2 of_IO these_DD2 people_NN have_VH0 read_VVN very_RG little_DA1 of_IO his_APPGE work_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Freud_NP1 was_VBDZ no_AT sexual_JJ pervert_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 worked_VVD twelve_MC hours_NNT2 a_AT1 day_NNT1 ,_, seeing_VVG patients_NN2 and_CC analysing_VVG their_APPGE cases_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 also_RR analysed_VVD his_APPGE own_DA dreams_NN2 and_CC from_II these_DD2 studies_NN2 developed_VVD his_APPGE theories_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 stated_VVD himself_PPX1 that_CST he_PPHS1 did_VDD not_XX believe_VVI that_DD1 neurotic_JJ symptoms_NN2 all_DB had_VHD a_AT1 sexual_JJ cause_NN1 and_CC berated_VVD a_AT1 student_NN1 writing_VVG a_AT1 paper_NN1 on_II chess_NN1 saying_VVG ,_, &bquo;_" you_PPY can_VM not_XX reduce_VVI everything_PN1 to_II the_AT Oedipus_NP1 Complex_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Through_II his_APPGE work_NN1 ,_, Freud_NP1 realised_VVD that_CST some_DD taboos_NN2 of_IO the_AT time_NNT1 were_VBDR much_RR more_RGR commonly_RR breached_VVN than_CSN was_VBDZ acknowledged_VVN by_II society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT sexual_JJ abuse_NN1 of_IO children_NN2 is_VBZ known_VVN ,_, unfortunately_RR ,_, to_TO be_VBI wide-spread_JJ today_RT and_CC homosexuality_NN1 ,_, at_II the_AT time_NNT1 considered_VVN to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 psychological_JJ disorder_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ becoming_VVG more_RRR and_CC more_RGR common-place_JJ as_CSA it_PPH1 becomes_VVZ increasingly_RR acceptable_JJ in_II today_RT 's_GE society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Sigmund_NP1 Freud_NP1 did_VDD not_XX overestimate_VVI the_AT importance_NN1 of_IO sex_NN1 in_II psychology_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 simply_RR showed_VVD that_DD1 sex_NN1 existed_VVD and_CC played_VVD a_AT1 major_JJ part_NN1 in_II the_AT psychological_JJ development_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 human_JJ being_NN1 and_CC if_CS suppressed_VVN could_VM result_VVI in_II neurotic_JJ disorders_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Many_DA2 of_IO his_APPGE findings_NN2 revealed_VVD aspects_NN2 of_IO society_NN1 which_DDQ are_VBR more_RGR openly_RR acknowledged_VVN today_RT ._. 
</s>
<s>
Some_DD critics_NN2 say_VV0 that_CST Freud_NP1 tried_VVD to_TO make_VVI sex_NN1 the_AT explanation_NN1 for_IF everything_PN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II truth_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 merely_RR tried_VVD to_TO break_VVI down_RP social_JJ barriers_NN2 and_CC taboos_NN2 that_CST surrounded_VVD sex_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO remove_VVI what_DDQ he_PPHS1 saw_VVD as_II a_AT1 cause_NN1 for_IF psychological_JJ problems_NN2 of_IO the_AT time_NNT1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT statement_NN1 that_CST he_PPHS1 overestimated_VVD the_AT importance_NN1 of_IO sex_NN1 in_II human_JJ psychology_NN1 is_VBZ refuted_VVN by_II an_AT1 examination_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE work_NN1 and_CC opinions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Kieran_NP1 Lee_NP1 February_NPM1 24_MC ,_, 1989_MC Tutor_NN1 :_: Andrew_NP1 Duncan_NP1 BRIEFLY_RR DESCRIBE_VV0 THE_AT WAY_NN1 IN_II WHICH_DDQ NERVE_VV0 CELLS_NN2 COMMUNICATE_VV0 DISCUSSING_VVG IN_II GENERAL_JJ TERMS_NN2 THE_AT MECHANISM_NN1 BY_II WHICH_DDQ THIS_DD1 COMMUNICATION_NN1 MAY_VM BE_VBI INFLUENCED_VVN BY_II PSYCHOACTIVE_JJ DRUGS_NN2 AND_CC POISONS_NN2 A_ZZ1 neurone_NN1 or_CC nerve_NN1 cell_NN1 ,_, like_II all_DB other_JJ cells_NN2 ,_, has_VHZ a_AT1 semi-permeable_JJ membrane_NN1 which_DDQ allows_VVZ some_DD substances_NN2 to_TO enter_VVI its_APPGE cytoplasm_NN1 while_CS keeping_VVG others_NN2 out_RP ._. 
</s>
<s>
Nerve_NN1 cells_NN2 ,_, unlike_JJ other_JJ cells_NN2 ,_, have_VH0 the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO communicate_VVI with_IW other_JJ nerve_NN1 cells_NN2 by_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO long_JJ thin_JJ fibres_NN2 known_VVN as_II axons_NN2 and_CC dendrites_NN2 which_DDQ extend_VV0 outwards_RL from_II the_AT cell_NN1 body_NN1 ,_, allowing_VVG the_AT cell_NN1 to_TO influence_VVI from_II 1,000_MC to_II 100,000_MC other_JJ nerve_NN1 cells_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT axon_NN1 of_IO the_AT cell_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT fibre_NN1 that_CST carries_VVZ signals_NN2 out_RP from_II the_AT cell_NN1 body_NN1 to_II the_AT dendrites_NN2 of_IO other_JJ nerve_NN1 cells_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 may_VM have_VHI many_DA2 branches_NN2 leading_VVG to_II many_DA2 other_JJ nerve_NN1 cells_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT dendrites_NN2 of_IO the_AT cell_NN1 ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, are_VBR the_AT fibres_NN2 that_CST receive_VV0 the_AT signals_NN2 from_II the_AT axons_NN2 of_IO other_JJ neurones_NN2 ,_, carrying_VVG those_DD2 signals_NN2 to_II the_AT cell_NN1 body_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Neurones_NN2 can_VM have_VHI literally_RR thousands_NNO2 of_IO dendrites_NN2 ,_, each_DD1 having_VHG many_DA2 branches_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 also_RR have_VH0 an_AT1 excitable_JJ surface_NN1 membrane_NN1 which_DDQ allows_VVZ a_AT1 signal_NN1 to_TO be_VBI sent_VVN from_II one_MC1 end_NN1 of_IO the_AT neurone_NN1 to_II the_AT other_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Synapses_NN2 ,_, minute_JJ gaps_NN2 between_II neurones_NN2 where_CS one_MC1 neurone_NN1 receives_VVZ signals_NN2 from_II another_DD1 ,_, also_RR facilitate_VV0 nerve_NN1 cell_NN1 communication_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Electrical_JJ signals_NN2 occur_VV0 between_II nerve_NN1 cells_NN2 as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO special_JJ properties_NN2 in_II the_AT membrane_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE axons_NN2 and_CC the_AT synapses_NN2 between_II neurones_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Because_CS the_AT membrane_NN1 of_IO the_AT cells_NN2 is_VBZ semi-permeable_JJ ,_, certain_JJ ions_NN2 can_VM not_XX usually_RR pass_VVI into_II the_AT cell_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR the_AT distribution_NN1 of_IO positively_RR and_CC negatively_RR charged_VVN particles_NN2 inside_RL and_CC outside_II the_AT membrane_NN1 is_VBZ usually_RR uneven_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 ,_, at_II resting_VVG potential_NN1 ,_, the_AT membrane_NN1 of_IO the_AT axon_NN1 is_VBZ polarised_VVN and_CC the_AT inside_NN1 of_IO the_AT membrane_NN1 is_VBZ slightly_RR negative_JJ compared_VVN with_IW the_AT outside_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Therefore_RR at_II resting_VVG potential_NN1 there_EX is_VBZ an_AT1 electric_JJ potential_NN1 of_IO -70mV_NNU due_II21 to_II22 the_AT attraction_NN1 between_II the_AT negative_JJ chloride_NN1 ions_NN2 on_II the_AT inside_NN1 of_IO the_AT axon_NN1 and_CC the_AT positive_JJ sodium_NN1 ions_NN2 on_II the_AT outside_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT sodium_NN1 is_VBZ only_RR able_JK to_TO pass_VVI into_II the_AT membrane_NN1 through_II sodium_NN1 ion_NN1 channels_NN2 distributed_VVN along_II the_AT axon_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 channels_NN2 are_VBR normally_RR closed_VVN ,_, but_CCB the_AT membrane_NN1 around_II a_AT1 particular_JJ sodium_NN1 channel_NN1 may_VM become_VVI depolarised_JJ causing_VVG the_AT channel_NN1 to_TO open_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 occurs_VVZ at_II a_AT1 potential_NN1 of_IO +50mV_FO inside_II that_DD1 part_NN1 of_IO the_AT axon_NN1 with_II31 respect_II32 to_II33 the_AT outside_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 results_VVZ in_II the_AT neighbouring_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT axon_NN1 also_RR reaching_VVG this_DD1 potential_NN1 ,_, thus_RR causing_VVG its_APPGE ion_NN1 channel_NN1 to_TO open_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 sequence_NN1 of_IO depolarisation_NN1 continues_VVZ till_CS it_PPH1 reaches_VVZ the_AT end_NN1 of_IO the_AT axon_NN1 and_CC is_VBZ known_VVN as_II self-propagation_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 &bquo;_" firing_NN1 &equo;_" of_IO the_AT axon_NN1 is_VBZ known_VVN as_II the_AT action_NN1 potential_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT speed_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 action_NN1 potential_NN1 down_RP a_AT1 cell_NN1 is_VBZ specific_JJ to_II that_DD1 cell_NN1 ,_, but_CCB in_II different_JJ cells_NN2 this_DD1 speed_NN1 ranges_VVZ from_II 0.2_MC metres_NNU2 per_II second_NNT1 to_II 120_MC metres_NNU2 per_II second_NNT1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 speed_NN1 is_VBZ dependant_JJ on_II the_AT diameter_NN1 of_IO the_AT axon_NN1 and_CC whether_CSW myelin_NN1 is_VBZ present_JJ ;_; myelin_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 fatty_JJ substance_NN1 that_CST wraps_VVZ around_RP some_DD axons_NN2 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO speed_VVI action_NN1 potentials_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT rate_NN1 of_IO firing_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 specific_JJ neurone_NN1 varies_VVZ ;_; it_PPH1 can_VM fire_VVI repeatedly_RR as_CSA after_II the_AT ion_NN1 channels_NN2 have_VH0 closed_VVN polarisation_NN1 builds_VVZ up_RP again_RT ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT brief_JJ time_NNT1 taken_VVN for_IF this_DD1 re-polarisation_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT refractory_JJ period_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Due_II21 to_II22 the_AT brevity_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 period_NN1 a_AT1 neurone_NN1 can_VM send_VVI action_NN1 potentials_NN2 at_II a_AT1 rate_NN1 of_IO up_RG21 to_RG22 1000_MC per_II second_NNT1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT signal_NN1 is_VBZ transferred_VVN across_II the_AT synapse_NN1 between_II the_AT axon_NN1 of_IO one_MC1 cell_NN1 and_CC the_AT dendrite_NN1 of_IO another_DD1 by_II neurotransmitters_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX are_VBR about_RG 50_MC known_JJ neurotransmitters_NN2 ,_, each_DD1 of_IO which_DDQ are_VBR used_VVN by_II a_AT1 particular_JJ set_NN1 of_IO neurones_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
When_CS an_AT1 action_NN1 potential_NN1 reaches_VVZ a_AT1 synapse_NN1 it_PPH1 releases_VVZ the_AT neurotransmitters_NN2 which_DDQ spread_VV0 across_II the_AT synapse_NN1 to_TO reach_VVI the_AT next_MD ,_, or_CC postsynaptic_JJ ,_, nerve_NN1 cell_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_RL the_AT neurotransmitters_NN2 cause_VV0 a_AT1 change_NN1 in_II the_AT membrane_NN1 potential_NN1 of_IO the_AT dendrite_NN1 of_IO the_AT postsynaptic_JJ cell_NN1 ,_, thus_RR creating_VVG an_AT1 electrical_JJ signal_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 signal_NN1 can_VM be_VBI either_RR excitatory_JJ or_CC inhibitory_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
If_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ excitatory_JJ ,_, it_PPH1 makes_VVZ the_AT postsynaptic_JJ cell_NN1 more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO fire_VVI whereas_CS if_CS the_AT signal_NN1 is_VBZ inhibitory_JJ it_PPH1 makes_VVZ the_AT postsynaptic_JJ cell_NN1 less_RGR likely_JJ to_TO fire_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
If_CS the_AT signal_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT former_DA a_AT1 wave_NN1 of_IO depolarisation_NN1 in_II the_AT membrane_NN1 of_IO the_AT postsynaptic_JJ nerve_NN1 cell_NN1 's_GE dendrite_NN1 begins_VVZ to_TO move_VVI towards_II its_APPGE cell_NN1 body_NN1 ,_, or_CC stoma_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR unlike_II the_AT action_NN1 potential_NN1 in_II an_AT1 axon_NN1 this_DD1 wave_NN1 fades_VVZ as_CSA it_PPH1 goes_VVZ along_RP so_RG only_RR if_CS the_AT signal_NN1 is_VBZ strong_JJ enough_RR to_TO begin_VVI with_IW will_NN1 it_PPH1 pass_VVI through_RP to_II the_AT postsynaptic_JJ cell_NN1 body_NN1 to_TO create_VVI a_AT1 new_JJ action_NN1 potential_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Neurones_NN2 may_VM have_VHI synapses_NN2 with_IW thousands_NNO2 of_IO other_JJ neurones_NN2 with_IW a_AT1 combination_NN1 of_IO inhibitory_JJ and_CC excitatory_JJ signals_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Whether_CSW31 or_CSW32 not_CSW33 the_AT neurone_NN1 fires_NN2 and_CC how_RGQ rapidly_RR it_PPH1 fires_VVZ depends_VVZ on_II which_DDQ signal_NN1 predominates_VVZ from_II moment_NN1 to_II moment_NN1 at_II the_AT junction_NN1 of_IO the_AT cell_NN1 body_NN1 and_CC the_AT axon_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
An_AT1 axon_NN1 is_VBZ enlarged_VVN at_II the_AT tip_NN1 and_CC this_DD1 presynaptic_JJ area_NN1 contains_VVZ vesicles_NN2 made_VVN from_II the_AT same_DA material_NN1 as_CSA the_AT cell_NN1 membrane_NN1 ,_, containing_VVG the_AT neurotransmitters_NN2 that_CST are_VBR released_VVN in_II the_AT synapse_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 neurotransmitters_NN2 stimulate_VV0 the_AT postsynaptic_JJ nerve_NN1 cells_NN2 at_II specialised_JJ sites_NN2 called_VVN receptors_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 given_JJ neurotransmitter_NN1 fits_VVZ perfectly_RR only_RR into_II its_APPGE specific_JJ receptor_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
When_CS a_AT1 neurotransmitter_NN1 fits_VVZ into_II its_APPGE receptor_NN1 it_PPH1 triggers_VVZ the_AT chemical_JJ response_NN1 that_CST changes_VVZ the_AT membrane_NN1 potential_NN1 and_CC passes_VVZ the_AT signal_NN1 from_II one_MC1 neurone_NN1 to_II another_DD1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 neurotransmitter_NN1 has_VHZ only_RR a_AT1 brief_JJ stay_NN1 at_II its_APPGE receptor_NN1 site_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 must_VM be_VBI moved_VVN from_II the_AT receptor_NN1 after_CS they_PPHS2 have_VH0 connected_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 that_CST the_AT receptor_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX stimulated_VVN indefinitely_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ done_VDN either_RR by_II an_AT1 enzyme_NN1 which_DDQ breaks_VVZ down_RP the_AT neurotransmitter_NN1 or_CC ,_, more_RGR commonly_RR ,_, the_AT neurotransmitter_NN1 can_VM be_VBI transported_VVN back_RP into_II the_AT presynaptic_JJ area_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 process_NN1 is_VBZ called_VVN reuptake_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT five_MC main_JJ neurotransmitters_NN2 are_VBR acetylcholine_NN1 ,_, noradrenaline_VV0 ,_, serotonin_NN1 ,_, dopamine_VV0 ,_, and_CC gammo-amino_JJ butyric_JJ acid_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Nerves_NN2 that_CST communicate_VV0 with_IW the_AT use_NN1 of_IO acetylcholine_NN1 are_VBR said_VVN to_TO be_VBI cholinergic_JJ and_CC are_VBR found_VVN in_II the_AT peripheral_JJ and_CC central_JJ nervous_JJ systems_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
At_II the_AT junction_NN1 of_IO nerves_NN2 and_CC muscles_NN2 ,_, these_DD2 neurones_NN2 control_VV0 the_AT contraction_NN1 of_IO muscles_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Alzheimer_NP1 's_GE disease_NN1 seems_VVZ to_TO stem_VVI from_II a_AT1 complete_JJ loss_NN1 of_IO cholinergic_JJ neurones_NN2 from_II a_AT1 nucleus_NN1 in_II the_AT basal_JJ forebrain_NN1 that_CST sends_VVZ fibres_NN2 to_II the_AT cerebral_JJ cortex_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Nerves_NN2 that_CST communicate_VV0 using_VVG noradrenaline_NN1 are_VBR adrenergic_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Half_DB of_IO the_AT noradrenaline_NN1 in_II the_AT brain_NN1 is_VBZ located_VVN in_II the_AT cells_NN2 of_IO the_AT locus_NN1 coerulum_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 part_NN1 of_IO the_AT brain_NN1 whose_DDQGE neurones_NN2 affect_VV0 as_RG many_DA2 as_CSA 100,000_MC others_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Serotonin_NP1 (_( 5-hydroxytryptamine_NN1 )_) is_VBZ found_VVN in_II a_AT1 similar_JJ position_NN1 in_II the_AT brain_NN1 to_TO noradrenaline_VVI and_CC affects_VVZ sleep_NN1 and_CC moods_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Serotonin_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR affective_JJ in_II the_AT neural_JJ circuits_NN2 that_CST descend_VV0 from_II the_AT brain_NN1 to_TO help_VVI block_NN1 pain_NN1 sensations_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT substances_NN2 from_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ made_VVN ,_, tryptophan_NN1 ,_, can_VM be_VBI used_VVN by_II the_AT brain_NN1 directly_RR from_II food_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ one_MC1 way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ food_NN1 may_VM affect_VVI mood_NN1 and_CC drowsiness_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Dopamine_NN1 is_VBZ used_VVN by_II a_AT1 more_RGR restricted_JJ number_NN1 of_IO neurones_NN2 than_CSN the_AT other_JJ neurotransmitters_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE axons_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX branch_VVI as_RG extensively_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
Some_DD neurones_NN2 that_CST release_VV0 dopamine_NN1 are_VBR involved_JJ in_II movement_NN1 and_CC their_APPGE degeneration_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT cause_NN1 of_IO Parkinson_NP1 's_GE disease_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Malfunctioning_NN1 of_IO the_AT dopaminergic_JJ neurones_NN2 may_VM be_VBI responsible_JJ for_IF schizophrenia_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Gamma-amino_JJ butyric_JJ acid_NN1 (_( GABA_NP1 )_) reduces_VVZ the_AT likelihood_NN1 that_CST the_AT postsynaptic_JJ neurone_NN1 will_VM fire_VVI an_AT1 action_NN1 potential_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ used_VVN by_II neurones_NN2 in_II widespread_JJ regions_NN2 of_IO the_AT brain_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
GABA_NP1 is_VBZ the_AT main_JJ inhibitory_JJ neurotransmitter_NN1 and_CC may_VM be_VBI partially_RR responsible_JJ for_IF epilepsy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Neurotransmission_NN1 can_VM be_VBI affected_VVN in_II several_DA2 ways_NN2 by_II psychoactive_JJ drugs_NN2 and_CC poisons_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Psychoactive_JJ drugs_NN2 are_VBR chemical_JJ substances_NN2 that_CST act_VV0 on_II the_AT brain_NN1 to_TO create_VVI psychological_JJ effects_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 poison_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 chemical_JJ substance_NN1 which_DDQ creates_VVZ negative_JJ psychological_JJ effects_NN2 over_II a_AT1 certain_JJ dosage_NN1 ;_; a_AT1 psychoactive_JJ drug_NN1 can_VM be_VBI a_AT1 poison_NN1 at_II high_JJ dosage_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 can_VM alter_VVI the_AT amount_NN1 of_IO neurotransmitter_NN1 released_VVN by_II a_AT1 neurone_NN1 ,_, mimic_VV0 the_AT neurotransmitter_NN1 at_II the_AT receptor_NN1 site_NN1 (_( agonists_NN2 )_) ,_, block_NN1 receptors_NN2 for_IF a_AT1 certain_JJ neurotransmitter_NN1 (_( antagonists_NN2 )_) ,_, block_NN1 reuptake_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 neurotransmitter_NN1 from_II the_AT synapse_NN1 ,_, affect_VV0 electrical_JJ conduction_NN1 in_II the_AT axon_NN1 ,_, inhibit_VV0 biosynthesis_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 neurotransmitter_NN1 ,_, or_CC inhibit_VV0 the_AT breakdown_NN1 of_IO the_AT neurotransmitter_NN1 by_II enzymes_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Amphetamines_NN2 release_VV0 noradrenaline_NN1 and_CC serotonin_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Venoms_NN2 from_II snakes_NN2 and_CC spiders_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 the_AT Taiwan_NP1 banded_JJ Krait_NN1 ,_, cause_VV0 the_AT release_NN1 of_IO the_AT neurotransmitter_NN1 acetylcholine_NN1 from_II the_AT presynaptic_JJ vesicle_NN1 ,_, causing_VVG the_AT loss_NN1 of_IO control_NN1 and_CC contraction_NN1 of_IO muscles_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Botulism_NN1 toxin_NN1 from_II bacteria_NN2 prevents_VVZ the_AT release_NN1 of_IO acetylcholine_NN1 and_CC is_VBZ the_AT most_RGT poisonous_JJ substance_NN1 known_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Benzodiazepines_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 valium_NN1 cause_VV0 the_AT release_NN1 of_IO GABA_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Agonists_NN2 are_VBR substances_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR so_RG similar_JJ to_II a_AT1 specific_JJ neurotransmitter_NN1 they_PPHS2 can_VM occupy_VVI that_DD1 neurotransmitter_NN1 's_GE receptor_NN1 perfectly_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT drug_NN1 ephedrine_NN1 mimics_VVZ noradrenaline_NN1 and_CC therefore_RR has_VHZ arousing_JJ properties_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ used_VVN to_TO treat_VVI nacrolepsy_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 disease_NN1 in_II which_DDQ a_AT1 person_NN1 falls_VVZ asleep_JJ abruptly_RR and_CC unpredictably_RR during_II the_AT day_NNT1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Amphetamines_NN2 can_VM produce_VVI a_AT1 psychotic_JJ effect_NN1 due_II21 to_II22 an_AT1 agonistic_JJ effect_NN1 on_II dopamine_NN1 receptors_NN2 in_II the_AT CNS_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
An_AT1 antagonist_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 substance_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ similar_JJ enough_RR to_II a_AT1 neurotransmitter_NN1 to_TO occupy_VVI its_APPGE receptors_NN2 ,_, but_CCB is_VBZ not_XX similar_JJ enough_RR to_TO fit_VVI perfectly_RR and_CC change_VVI the_AT cell_NN1 's_GE membrane_NN1 potential_NN1 ,_, thereby_RR blocking_VVG the_AT receptor_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT poison_NN1 strychnine_NN1 acts_VVZ as_II an_AT1 antagonist_NN1 on_II the_AT receptors_NN2 of_IO the_AT neurotransmitter_NN1 glycine_NN1 ,_, inducing_VVG fear_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
LSD_NN1 (_( lysergic_JJ acid_NN1 diethylamide_NN1 )_) is_VBZ a_AT1 serotonin_NN1 antagonist_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Many_DA2 drugs_NN2 interfere_VV0 with_IW the_AT reuptake_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 neurotransmitter_NN1 from_II synapses_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT result_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST the_AT concentration_NN1 of_IO neurotransmitters_NN2 in_II a_AT1 synapse_NN1 increases_NN2 and_CC the_AT normal_JJ actions_NN2 of_IO the_AT neurotransmitter_NN1 is_VBZ enhanced_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Many_DA2 drugs_NN2 that_CST are_VBR used_VVN to_TO treat_VVI depression_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 imipramine_NN1 and_CC amitrypline_VV0 block_VV0 the_AT reuptake_NN1 of_IO noradrenaline_NN1 and_CC serotonin_NN1 ,_, thus_RR leaving_VVG more_DAR of_IO these_DD2 chemicals_NN2 at_II the_AT synapse_NN1 in_II turn_NN1 relieving_JJ depression_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Other_JJ drugs_NN2 block_VV0 the_AT reuptake_NN1 of_IO acetylcholine_NN1 from_II a_AT1 synapse_NN1 and_CC at_II the_AT junction_NN1 between_II neurones_NN2 and_CC muscles_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 results_VVZ in_II excessive_JJ contraction_NN1 of_IO the_AT muscles_NN2 leading_VVG to_II death_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, insecticides_NN2 and_CC nerve_NN1 gases_NN2 act_VV0 by_II blocking_VVG the_AT removal_NN1 of_IO acetylcholine_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ that_CST lithium_NN1 has_VHZ an_AT1 effect_NN1 on_II the_AT conduction_NN1 in_II an_AT1 axon_NN1 by_II replacing_VVG the_AT sodium_NN1 ion_NN1 and_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ used_VVN in_II the_AT treatment_NN1 of_IO depressive_NN1 illness_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Poison_NN1 from_II the_AT puffer_NN1 fish_NN ,_, tetrodotoxin_NN1 ,_, prevents_VVZ conduction_NN1 in_II nerves_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT biosynthesis_NN1 of_IO noradrenaline_NN1 in_II the_AT central_JJ nervous_JJ system_NN1 is_VBZ inhibited_VVN by_II large_JJ doses_NN2 of_IO benseraside_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Substances_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 iproniazid_NN1 inhibit_VV0 the_AT enzyme_NN1 monoamine_NN1 oxidase_NN1 (_( MAO_NP1 )_) ,_, which_DDQ breaks_VVZ down_RP the_AT neurotransmitter_NN1 noradrenaline_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Iproniazid_NN1 is_VBZ used_VVN in_II the_AT treatment_NN1 of_IO depression_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN from_II this_DD1 account_NN1 that_CST the_AT mechanism_NN1 by_II which_DDQ nerve_VV0 cells_NN2 operate_VV0 can_VM be_VBI strongly_RR affected_VVN by_II psychoactive_JJ drugs_NN2 and_CC poisons_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Name_NN1 :_: Kieran_NP1 Lee_NP1 (_( Graeme_NP1 Conn_NP1 )_) Week_NNT1 of_IO Experiment_NN1 :_: Spring_NN1 term_NN1 ,_, Week_NNT1 7/9_MF Lab_NN1 :_: Transforming_VVG Common_JJ Sense_NN1 into_II Scientific_JJ Knowledge_NN1 Class_NN1 :_: Wednesday_NPD1 Demonstrator_NP1 :_: Dr._NNB P._NP1 Caryl_NP1 Due_JJ :_: April_NPM1 17th_MD ,_, 1991_MC Submitted_VVD :_: April_NPM1 24th_MD ,_, 1991_MC Introduction_NN1 Social_JJ psychologists_NN2 regard_VV0 common_JJ sense_NN1 answers_VVZ for_IF our_APPGE attraction_NN1 to_II some_DD people_NN rather_II21 than_II22 others_NN2 as_CSA being_VBG inadequate_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Duck_NN (_( 1988_MC )_) tells_VVZ us_PPIO2 that_DD1 &bquo;_" common_JJ sense_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 good_JJ assistant_NN1 &equo;_" in_II understanding_VVG interpersonal_JJ relationships_NN2 and_CC tries_VVZ &bquo;_" to_TO indicate_VVI the_AT fundamental_JJ inadequacy_NN1 of_IO some_DD common_JJ sense_NN1 assumptions_NN2 about_II attraction_NN1 to_II strangers_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Hence_RR ,_, social_JJ psychologists_NN2 attempt_VV0 to_TO transcend_VVI the_AT naivety_NN1 of_IO common_JJ sense_NN1 ,_, to_TO clear_VVI up_RP its_APPGE confusions_NN2 and_CC &bquo;_" unfounded_JJ speculation_NN1 &equo;_" ,_, and_CC to_TO transform_VVI lay_JJ into_II scientific_JJ theories_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II our_APPGE study_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 are_VBR going_VVGK to_TO examine_VVI the_AT process_NN1 and_CC products_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 transformation_NN1 with_II31 reference_II32 to_II33 first_MD impressions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Anderson_NP1 and_CC Barrios_58 '_GE (_( 1961_MC )_) experiment_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 typical_JJ example_NN1 of_IO how_RRQ the_AT folk_NN wisdom_NN1 that_CST you_PPY should_VM always_RR &bquo;_" put_VVD your_APPGE best_JJT foot_NN1 forward_RL &equo;_" is_VBZ made_VVN amenable_JJ to_II experimental_JJ investigation_NN1 ,_, and_CC then_RT transformed_VVN into_II scientific_JJ knowledge_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX are_VBR several_DA2 steps_NN2 in_II this_DD1 process_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
First_MD the_AT significance_NN1 of_IO first_MD impressions_NN2 is_VBZ translated_VVN into_II technical_JJ language_NN1 :_: &bquo;_" the_AT primacy_NN1 effect_NN1 &equo;_" or_CC &bquo;_" word_NN1 order_NN1 effect_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Second_MD ,_, &bquo;_" information_NN1 &equo;_" and_CC &bquo;_" impressions_NN2 &equo;_" are_VBR operationalised_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
&bquo;_" Information_NN1 &equo;_" becomes_VVZ personality_NN1 traits_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR presented_VVN in_II lists_NN2 of_IO six_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
&bquo;_" Impressions_NN2 &equo;_" are_VBR measured_VVN on_II a_AT1 rating_NN1 scale_NN1 of_IO -4_MC to_II +4_MC according_II21 to_II22 their_APPGE favourability_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Third_MD ,_, the_AT information_NN1 given_VVN to_II subjects_NN2 is_VBZ manipulated_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO determine_VVI the_AT effects_NN2 of_IO &bquo;_" first_MD information_NN1 &equo;_" or_CC &bquo;_" impressions_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ done_VDN by_II constructing_VVG different_JJ types_NN2 of_IO adjective_NN1 lists_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
HL_NP1 lists_NN2 consist_VV0 of_IO three_MC highly_RR positive_JJ followed_VVN by_II three_MC highly_RR negative_JJ adjectives_NN2 ;_; LH_NP1 lists_NN2 consist_VV0 of_IO three_MC highly_RR negative_JJ followed_VVN by_II three_MC highly_RR positive_JJ qualities_NN2 ;_; GD_JJ lists_NN2 consist_VV0 of_IO adjectives_NN2 gradually_RR descending_VVG from_II highly_RR positive_JJ to_TO highly_RR negative_JJ traits_NN2 ;_; and_CC in_II GA_NP1 lists_VVZ the_AT order_NN1 of_IO adjectives_NN2 is_VBZ reversed_VVN ;_; R_ZZ1 lists_NN2 are_VBR random_JJ in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT adjective_NN1 evaluation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Anderson_NP1 and_CC Barrios_FW used_VVD 12_MC lists_NN2 of_IO each_DD1 type_NN1 ,_, making_VVG 60_MC in_II all_DB ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT idea_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST if_CS first_MD information_NN1 is_VBZ most_RGT important_JJ ,_, then_RT HL_NP1 and_CC GD_JJ lists_NN2 will_VM result_VVI in_II a_AT1 favourable_JJ rating_NN1 ,_, and_CC LH_NP1 and_CC GA_NP1 lists_NN2 will_VM result_VVI in_II an_AT1 unfavourable_JJ rating_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Fourth_MD ,_, the_AT process_NN1 of_IO forming_VVG impressions_NN2 is_VBZ isolated_VVN from_II any_DD other_JJ influences_NN2 that_CST might_VM ordinarily_RR affect_VVI our_APPGE impressions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR ,_, the_AT adjectives_NN2 are_VBR prerecorded_VVN by_II the_AT same_DA speaker_NN1 ,_, at_II a_AT1 rate_NN1 of_IO one_MC1 every_AT1 three_MC seconds_NNT2 ,_, and_CC played_VVD back_RP to_II subjects_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 are_VBR simply_RR told_VVN to_TO imagine_VVI that_CST the_AT adjectives_NN2 had_VHD been_VBN used_VVN by_II 6_MC different_JJ people_NN to_TO describe_VVI another_DD1 person_NN1 ,_, and_CC to_TO use_VVI these_DD2 traits_NN2 to_TO form_VVI an_AT1 impression_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 imaginary_JJ person_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II this_DD1 way_NN1 ,_, &bquo;_" information_NN1 &equo;_" is_VBZ isolated_VVN from_II the_AT source_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 information_NN1 and_CC any_DD other_JJ possible_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO the_AT target_NN1 person_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Moreover_RR ,_, subjects_NN2 form_VV0 impressions_NN2 in_II the_AT supposedly_RR neutral_JJ context_NN1 of_IO the_AT laboratory_NN1 cubicle_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; thus_RR isolated_VVN from_II the_AT complex_JJ social_JJ situations_NN2 in_II which_DDQ we_PPIS2 actually_RR form_VV0 impressions_NN2 of_IO others_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 of_RR21 course_RR22 has_VHZ the_AT advantage_NN1 of_IO controlling_VVG for_IF context_NN1 effects_NN2 by_II making_VVG the_AT context_NN1 the_AT same_DA for_IF everyone_PN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
We_PPIS2 then_RT impose_VV0 some_DD &bquo;_" order_NN1 &equo;_" on_II our_APPGE subjects_NN2 '_GE responses_NN2 through_II statistical_JJ analysis_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT statistical_JJ order_NN1 is_VBZ then_RT related_VVN to_II our_APPGE original_JJ hypothesis_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II31 keeping_II32 with_II33 their_APPGE hypothesis_NN1 ,_, Anderson_NP1 and_CC Barrios_FW (_( 1961_MC )_) did_VDD find_VVI strong_JJ primacy_NN1 effects_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT next_MD step_NN1 in_II the_AT transformation_NN1 of_IO common_JJ sense_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO explain_VVI the_AT &bquo;_" scientific_JJ discovery_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
One_MC1 way_NN1 is_VBZ ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, to_TO ask_VVI how_RRQ the_AT subjects_NN2 did_VDD the_AT task_NN1 since_CS ,_, after_II all_DB ,_, they_PPHS2 had_VHD the_AT experience_NN1 of_IO doing_VDG it_PPH1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT more_RGR usual_JJ alternative_NN1 however_RR is_VBZ to_TO explain_VVI our_APPGE discovery_NN1 as_CSA being_VBG due_II21 to_II22 a_AT1 certain_JJ causal_JJ process_NN1 ,_, something_PN1 within_II us_PPIO2 that_CST makes_VVZ us_PPIO2 behave_VVI in_II a_AT1 certain_JJ way_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR ,_, Jones_NP1 and_CC Goethals_NP1 (_( 1971_MC )_) ,_, reviewing_VVG this_DD1 and_CC similar_JJ studies_NN2 ,_, argue_VV0 that_CST the_AT primacy_NN1 effect_NN1 could_VM be_VBI due_II21 to_II22 one_MC1 of_IO three_MC possible_JJ causal_JJ processes_NN2 :_: attention_NN1 decrement_NN1 ,_, discounting_VVG ,_, and_CC assimilation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
attention_NN1 decrement_NN1 :_: subjects_NN2 may_VM &bquo;_" hold_VV0 on_RP &equo;_" to_II initial_JJ words_NN2 because_CS they_PPHS2 get_VV0 distracted_VVN or_CC bored_JJ when_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR asked_VVN to_TO process_VVI sequential_JJ information_NN1 ,_, hence_RR they_PPHS2 do_VD0 n't_XX pay_VVI attention_NN1 to_II later_JJR words_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Alternatively_RR ,_, subjects_NN2 might_VM selectively_RR attend_VVI to_II initial_JJ information_NN1 and_CC ignore_VVI later_RRR ,_, incompatible_JJ information_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
discounting_NN1 :_: it_PPH1 is_VBZ argued_VVN that_CST we_PPIS2 attribute_VV0 our_APPGE first_MD impressions_NN2 to_II the_AT person_NN1 (_( e.g._REX to_II a_AT1 person_NN1 's_GE traits_NN2 or_CC abilities_NN2 )_) ,_, and_CC later_RRR or_CC more_RGR recent_JJ information_NN1 to_II the_AT situation_NN1 (_( e.g._REX the_AT task_NN1 ,_, environment_NN1 ,_, influence_NN1 of_IO other_JJ people_NN )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
Hence_RR ,_, when_CS judging_VVG a_AT1 person_NN1 we_PPIS2 pay_VV0 more_DAR attention_NN1 to_II initial_JJ information_NN1 and_CC discount_VV0 the_AT later_JJR information_NN1 as_CSA being_VBG due_II21 to_II22 the_AT situation_NN1 (_( especially_RR where_CS later_JJR information_NN1 is_VBZ incompatible_JJ with_IW early_JJ information_NN1 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
assimilation_NN1 :_: it_PPH1 is_VBZ argued_VVN that_CST initial_JJ information_NN1 sets_VVZ up_RP expectancies_NN2 about_II a_AT1 person_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
That_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, we_PPIS2 initially_RR categorise_VV0 them_PPHO2 as_CSA this_DD1 or_CC that_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO person_NN1 and_CC interpret_VV0 or_CC distort_VV0 subsequent_JJ information_NN1 to_TO confirm_VVI that_CST s/he_PPHS1 is_VBZ this_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO person_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Through_II assimilation_NN1 we_PPIS2 can_VM achieve_VVI consistency_NN1 in_II our_APPGE impressions_NN2 of_IO others_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
At_II this_DD1 point_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 need_VV0 to_TO test_VVI our_APPGE alternative_JJ scientific_JJ theories_NN2 to_TO see_VVI which_DDQ of_IO the_AT above_JJ is_VBZ the_AT &bquo;_" correct_JJ process_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Hence_RR ,_, subsequent_JJ studies_NN2 manipulated_VVD things_NN2 like_II the_AT degree_NN1 of_IO incompatibility_NN1 between_II initial_NN1 and_CC later_JJR adjectives_NN2 and_CC the_AT instructions_NN2 to_II subjects_NN2 (_( e.g._REX whether_CSW the_AT adjective_NN1 are_VBR or_CC are_VBR not_XX equally_RR valid_JJ )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
Unfortunately_RR ,_, some_DD of_IO these_DD2 studies_NN2 found_VVD a_AT1 recency_NN1 effect_NN1 in_II impression_NN1 formation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Attention_NN1 then_RT had_VHD to_TO be_VBI directed_VVN towards_II identifying_VVG the_AT conditions_NN2 under_II which_DDQ recency_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 primacy_NN1 would_VM be_VBI shown_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
We_PPIS2 might_VM note_VVI the_AT irony_NN1 at_II this_DD1 point_NN1 :_: the_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO experimentation_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO clear_VVI up_RP the_AT confusions_NN2 ,_, contradictions_NN2 ,_, and_CC conflicting_JJ advice_NN1 of_IO common_JJ sense_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
But_CCB our_APPGE experimental_JJ evidence_NN1 has_VHZ revealed_VVN equally_RR conflicting_JJ themes_NN2 :_: primacy_NN1 and_CC recency_NN1 !_! 
</s>
<s>
Whilst_CS it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI the_AT most_RGT objective_JJ away_RL of_IO practising_JJ social_JJ psychology_NN1 ,_, experiments_NN2 and_CC the_AT scientific_JJ theories_NN2 to_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 give_VV0 rise_NN1 ,_, may_VM not_XX be_VBI the_AT most_RGT useful_JJ or_CC appropriate_JJ means_NN of_IO understanding_VVG the_AT individual_NN1 in_II society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX are_VBR two_MC reasons_NN2 for_IF this_DD1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
First_MD ,_, social_JJ psychology_NN1 is_VBZ alienating_JJ because_CS our_APPGE everyday_JJ lives_NN2 are_VBR not_XX made_VVN sense_NN1 of_IO in_II our_APPGE terms_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Instead_RR ,_, meaning_VVG and_CC order_NN1 is_VBZ imposed_VVN on_II our_APPGE lives_NN2 as_CSA our_APPGE behaviour_NN1 ,_, experiences_NN2 ,_, thoughts_NN2 ,_, feelings_NN2 ,_, and_RR31 so_RR32 on_RR33 ,_, are_VBR transformed_VVN into_II statistical_JJ data_NN and_CC interpreted_VVN within_II a_AT1 scientific_JJ framework_NN1 to_II which_DDQ we_PPIS2 have_VH0 no_AT access_NN1 unless_CS we_PPIS2 've_VH0 been_VBN trained_VVN in_II the_AT technical_JJ language_NN1 of_IO psychology_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT second_MD reason_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 nagging_JJ doubt_NN1 that_CST perhaps_RR we_PPIS2 are_VBR researching_VVG fictions_NN2 of_IO our_APPGE own_DA making_NN1 ;_; that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, we_PPIS2 are_VBR producing_VVG theories_NN2 about_II experimental_JJ subjects_NN2 in_II laboratory_NN1 situations_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 nothing_PN1 to_TO do_VDI with_IW the_AT individual_NN1 in_II society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
And_CC this_DD1 would_VM be_VBI somewhat_RR ironic_JJ given_VVN the_AT definition_NN1 of_IO social_JJ psychology_NN1 with_IW which_DDQ we_PPIS2 started_VVD this_DD1 discussion_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Perhaps_RR everyday_JJ life_NN1 ,_, far_RR from_II being_VBG ordered_VVN ,_, consistent_JJ and_CC non-contradictory_JJ is_VBZ chaotic_JJ ,_, inconsistent_JJ ,_, and_CC contradictory_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II which_DDQ case_NN1 ,_, the_AT contrary_JJ themes_NN2 of_IO common_JJ sense_NN1 are_VBR perfectly_RR adequate_JJ ways_NN2 of_IO dealing_VVG with_IW the_AT contradictions_NN2 of_IO everyday_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Perhaps_RR the_AT emphasis_NN1 on_II cause_NN1 and_CC effect_NN1 ,_, whilst_CS appropriate_JJ for_IF the_AT natural_JJ sciences_NN2 ,_, is_VBZ inappropriate_JJ for_IF understanding_VVG human_JJ behaviour_NN1 and_CC experience_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 could_VM be_VBI that_RG social_JJ psychologists_NN2 have_VH0 much_DA1 to_TO learn_VVI from_II the_AT practical_JJ knowledge_NN1 contained_VVD in_RR21 common_RR22 everyday_JJ sense_NN1 and_CC could_VM more_RGR usefully_RR pursue_VVI questions_NN2 of_IO how_RGQ common_JJ sense_NN1 helps_VVZ us_PPIO2 act_VVI in_II the_AT world_NN1 ,_, instead_II21 of_II22 criticising_VVG its_APPGE supposed_JJ inadequacies_NN2 and_CC developing_JJ new_JJ improved_JJ uncommon_JJ sense_NN1 based_VVN on_II the_AT laboratory_NN1 subject_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II this_DD1 practical_JJ ,_, we_PPIS2 shall_VM contrast_VVI three_MC ways_NN2 of_IO making_VVG sense_NN1 of_IO first_MD impressions_NN2 ;_; two_MC based_VVN on_II the_AT laboratory_NN1 experiment_NN1 ,_, one_PN1 on_II our_APPGE experience_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
First_MD we_PPIS2 will_VM repeat_VVI Anderson_NP1 and_CC Barrios_58 '_GE (_( 1961_MC )_) experiment_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Then_RT ,_, we_PPIS2 will_VM contrast_VVI each_DD1 of_IO these_DD2 with_IW accounts_NN2 of_IO first_MD meetings_NN2 with_IW people_NN we_PPIS2 know_VV0 well_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
We_PPIS2 shall_VM consider_VVI (_( i_ZZ1 )_) what_DDQ each_DD1 might_VM tell_VVI us_PPIO2 about_II first_MD impressions_NN2 and_CC (_( ii_MC )_) the_AT utility_NN1 of_IO social_JJ psychology_NN1 based_VVN on_II the_AT transformation_NN1 of_IO common_JJ sense_NN1 into_II scientific_JJ knowledge_NN1 compared_VVN with_IW a_AT1 psychology_NN1 based_VVN in_II common_JJ sense_NN1 and_CC experience_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Subjects_NN2 :_: Second-year_JJ undergraduate_NN1 students_NN2 at_II the_AT University_NN1 of_IO Edinburgh_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Stimuli_NN2 :_: Thirty_MC lists_NN2 of_IO adjectives_NN2 were_VBDR constructed_VVN from_II Anderson_NP1 's_GE (_( 1968_MC )_) list_NN1 of_IO 555_MC personality_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; trait_NN1 words_NN2 rated_VVN for_IF their_APPGE likableness_NN1 and_CC meaningfulness_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Only_JJ words_NN2 rated_VVD highly_RR or_CC this_DD1 latter_DA dimension_NN1 were_VBDR included_VVN in_II our_APPGE lists_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Materials_NN2 :_: A_AT1 questionnaire_NN1 :_: Part_NN1 I_PPIS1 contained_VVD 30_MC rating_NN1 scales_NN2 from_II -4_MC (_( highly_RR unfavourable_JJ )_) to_II +4_MC (_( highly_RR favourable_JJ )_) for_IF Person_NN1 1_MC1 to_II Person_NN1 30_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
Like_II Anderson_NP1 and_CC Barrios_FW ,_, we_PPIS2 had_VHD 5_MC types_NN2 of_IO list_NN1 :_: HL_NP1 ,_, LH_NP1 ,_, GD_JJ ,_, GA_NP1 ,_, and_CC R._NP1 Part_NN1 2_MC consisted_VVD of_IO one_MC1 question_NN1 as_CSA fellows_NN2 :_: &bquo;_" Please_RR describe_VV0 in_II your_APPGE own_DA words_NN2 ,_, how_RRQ you_PPY reached_VVD your_APPGE decisions_NN2 (_( i.e._REX what_DDQ strategy_NN1 or_CC strategies_NN2 did_VDD you_PPY use_VVI ?_? )_) 
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<s>
Please_RR list_VV0 them_PPHO2 ,_, if_CS you_PPY used_VVD more_DAR than_CSN one_MC1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX are_VBR no_AT right_NN1 or_CC wrong_JJ answers_NN2 ._. &equo;_" 
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<s>
Method_NN1 :_: Subjects_NN2 were_VBDR instructed_VVN &mdash;_- &bquo;_" Today_RT you_PPY are_VBR all_RR going_VVGK to_TO do_VDI an_AT1 experiment_NN1 on_II impression_NN1 formation_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
You_PPY will_VM be_VBI read_VVN a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO sets_NN2 of_IO adjectives_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Each_DD1 set_NN1 consists_VVZ of_IO adjectives_NN2 given_VVN by_II six_MC different_JJ people_NN who_PNQS know_VV0 the_AT target_NN1 person_NN1 well_RR ._. 
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<s>
You_PPY should_VM try_VVI to_TO form_VVI an_AT1 impression_NN1 of_IO the_AT person_NN1 the_AT adjectives_NN2 describe_VV0 ._. 
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<s>
You_PPY will_VM then_RT be_VBI asked_VVN to_II rate_NN1 that_CST impression_NN1 on_II an_AT1 eight_MC point_NN1 scale_NN1 rating_VVG from_II &bquo;_" highly_RR unfavourable_JJ impression_NN1 &equo;_" through_RP to_II a_AT1 &bquo;_" highly_RR favourable_JJ impression_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
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<s>
You_PPY will_VM be_VBI given_VVN a_AT1 form_NN1 on_II which_DDQ to_TO record_VVI the_AT favourability_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE impression_NN1 of_IO each_DD1 person_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
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<s>
Subjects_NN2 were_VBDR then_RT given_VVN an_AT1 example_NN1 and_CC instructions_NN2 in_II how_RRQ to_TO fill_VVI out_RP the_AT rating_NN1 scales_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Finally_RR ,_, they_PPHS2 were_VBDR told_VVN :_: &bquo;_" There_EX are_VBR no_AT right_NN1 or_CC wrong_JJ answers_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
I_PPIS1 am_VBM interested_JJ in_II your_APPGE immediate_JJ impression_NN1 of_IO the_AT person_NN1 described_VVD ._. 
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<s>
Do_VD0 not_XX spend_VVI long_RR making_VVG your_APPGE decision_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Please_RR make_VV0 sure_JJ that_CST you_PPY only_RR have_VH0 one_PN1 clear_RR circled_VVN point_NN1 on_II the_AT scale_NN1 for_IF every_AT1 person_NN1 ._. &equo;_" 
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<s>
The_AT adjectives_NN2 were_VBDR read_VVN out_RP at_II a_AT1 rate_NN1 of_IO one_MC1 every_AT1 three_MC seconds_NNT2 ._. 
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<s>
Each_DD1 list_NN1 is_VBZ preceded_VVN by_II the_AT Person_NN1 Number_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Once_RR this_DD1 stage_NN1 was_VBDZ completed_VVN ,_, subjects_NN2 were_VBDR told_VVN :_: &bquo;_" You_PPY have_VH0 just_RR participated_VVN in_II an_AT1 experiment_NN1 on_II impression_NN1 formation_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT experiment_NN1 is_VBZ now_RT over_RP ._. 
</s>
<s>
You_PPY are_VBR no_RR21 longer_RR22 subjects_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
I_PPIS1 want_VV0 you_PPY now_RT ,_, as_CSA people_NN ,_, to_TO reflect_VVI upon_II how_RRQ you_PPY did_VDD the_AT task_NN1 you_PPY were_VBDR asked_VVN to_TO do_VDI ._. 
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<s>
Then_RT ,_, in_II your_APPGE own_DA words_NN2 answer_VV0 the_AT question_NN1 at_II the_AT top_NN1 of_IO the_AT sheet_NN1 in_II31 front_II32 of_II33 you_PPY as_RG honestly_RR as_CSA you_PPY can_VM ._. 
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<s>
Note_VV0 that_CST there_EX are_VBR no_AT right_NN1 or_CC wrong_JJ answers_NN2 and_CC that_CST your_APPGE answers_NN2 are_VBR entirely_RR anonymous_JJ ._. 
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<s>
Please_RR write_VV0 your_APPGE answers_NN2 clearly_RR and_CC in_II list_NN1 form_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Write_VV0 as_RG many_DA2 or_CC as_RG little_DA1 as_CSA you_PPY can_VM ,_, but_CCB be_VBI honest_JJ !_! &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
When_CS Part_NN1 2_MC was_VBDZ completed_VVN ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ handed_VVN in_RP and_CC the_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO the_AT study_NN1 was_VBDZ explained_VVN ._. 
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<s>
Several_DA2 weeks_NNT2 before_II the_AT experimental_JJ study_NN1 of_IO first_MD impressions_NN2 ,_, students_NN2 were_VBDR asked_VVN to_TO &bquo;_" think_VVI of_IO someone_PN1 you_PPY know_VV0 well_RR &mdash;_- a_AT1 close_JJ friend_NN1 or_CC partner_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Bearing_VVG in_II mind_NN1 what_DDQ you_PPY know_VV0 about_II them_PPHO2 now_RT ,_, write_VV0 a_AT1 brief_JJ account_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE first_MD meeting_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Can_VM you_PPY remember_VVI what_DDQ you_PPY first_MD thought_NN1 of_IO them_PPHO2 ?_? &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 were_VBDR told_VVN to_TO spend_VVI a_AT1 maximum_NN1 of_IO fifteen_MC minutes_NNT2 on_II this_DD1 task_NN1 and_CC to_TO restrict_VVI their_APPGE accounts_NN2 to_II a_AT1 maximum_NN1 of_IO half_DB a_AT1 page_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ explained_VVN that_CST these_DD2 accounts_NN2 would_VM be_VBI used_VVN in_II a_AT1 later_JJR practical_JJ class_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Results_NN2 It_PPH1 was_VBDZ found_VVN that_DD1 is_VBZ most_RGT common_JJ for_IF two_MC strategies_NN2 to_TO be_VBI used_VVN when_CS evaluating_VVG the_AT target_NN1 person_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT use_NN1 of_IO three_MC strategies_NN2 also_RR proved_VVN to_TO be_VBI popular_JJ ,_, followed_VVN by_II one_MC1 ,_, and_CC finally_RR by_II four_MC or_CC more_DAR strategies_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 shows_VVZ that_CST generally_RR more_DAR than_CSN one_MC1 strategy_NN1 is_VBZ used_VVN ,_, but_CCB normally_RR no_AT more_DAR than_CSN three_MC ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ shown_VVN in_II Table_NN1 1_MC1 and_CC Fig._NN1 1_MC1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_CSA each_DD1 subject_NN1 may_VM have_VHI used_VVN more_DAR than_CSN one_MC1 of_IO the_AT strategies_NN2 when_CS evaluating_VVG a_AT1 person_NN1 ,_, in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO calculate_VVI inter-rater_JJ reliability_NN1 two_MC different_JJ judges_NN2 decided_VVD individually_RR which_DDQ strategy_NN1 they_PPHS2 believed_VVD the_AT individuals_NN2 had_VHD described_VVN ._. 
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<s>
Where_RRQ differences_NN2 arose_VVD ,_, the_AT two_MC judges_NN2 discussed_VVN and_CC settled_VVN on_II one_MC1 or_CC other_JJ of_IO the_AT differing_JJ categories_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 inter-rater_JJ reliability_NN1 was_VBDZ found_VVN to_TO be_VBI 0.88_MC ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ high_RR enough_RR for_IF results_NN2 to_TO be_VBI considered_VVN reliable_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT first_MD category_NN1 ,_, compare_VV0 and_CC contrast_VV0 positive_JJ and_CC negatives_NN2 ,_, involves_VVZ a_AT1 comparison_NN1 between_II positive_JJ and_CC negative_JJ adjectives_NN2 describing_VVG the_AT person_NN1 used_VVN together_RL to_TO form_VVI the_AT final_JJ opinion_NN1 ;_; for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, &bquo;_" &lsqb;_( I_ZZ1 &rsqb;_) weighed_VVD all_DB good_JJ points_NN2 against_II all_DB bad_JJ points_NN2 &equo;_" or_CC &bquo;_" as_CS31 far_CS32 as_CS33 I_PPIS1 was_VBDZ able_JK to_TO tell_VVI ,_, every_AT1 person_NN1 was_VBDZ described_VVN by_II three_MC positive/favourable_JJ adjectives_NN2 and_CC three_MC negative/unfavourable_JJ ones_NN2 &hellip;_... just_RR as_II an_AT1 impression_NN1 was_VBDZ formed_VVN it_PPH1 was_VBDZ negated_VVN by_II the_AT 5th_MD or_CC 6th_MD words_NN2 ,_, giving_VVG it_PPH1 a_AT1 cancelling_VVG out_RP effect_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
If_CS there_EX was_VBDZ the_AT choice_NN1 ,_, I_PPIS1 would_VM have_VHI given_VVN almost_RR all_DB the_AT persons_NN2 a_AT1 figure_NN1 of_IO zero_NN1 ,_, since_CS to_II my_APPGE mind_NN1 (_( +3_MC )_) +_FO (_( -3_MC )_) =_FO 0_MC !_! &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
The_AT second_MD category_NN1 ,_, overall_JJ impression_NN1 ,_, involves_VVZ listening_VVG to_II all_DB the_AT adjectives_NN2 describing_VVG the_AT person_NN1 and_CC thereby_RR forming_VVG an_AT1 overall_JJ impression_NN1 ;_; &bquo;_" &lsqb;_( I_ZZ1 &rsqb;_) assessed_VVD the_AT overall_JJ impression_NN1 left_VVD once_RR all_DB the_AT words_NN2 had_VHD been_VBN read_VVN out_RP &equo;_" or_CC &bquo;_" I_PPIS1 was_VBDZ not_XX conscious_JJ of_IO using_VVG any_DD strategy_NN1 in_RR21 particular_RR22 at_II the_AT time_NNT1 ,_, but_CCB I_PPIS1 guess_VV0 I_PPIS1 merely_RR listened_VVN to_II all_DB the_AT traits_NN2 and_CC tried_VVN to_TO gain_VVI an_AT1 overall_JJ impression_NN1 ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
The_AT serial_JJ strategy_NN1 involved_VVD thinking_NN1 of_IO or_CC placing_VVG your_APPGE finger_NN1 on_II an_AT1 imaginary_JJ scale_NN1 and_CC moving_VVG backwards_RL and_CC forwards_RL along_II that_DD1 scale_NN1 as_CSA adjectives_NN2 were_VBDR successively_RR read_VVN out_RP until_CS a_AT1 final_JJ impression_NN1 was_VBDZ reached_VVN ;_; &bquo;_" after_CS the_AT first_MD adjective_NN1 I_PPIS1 rated_VVD the_AT person_NN1 in_II my_APPGE head_NN1 ,_, then_RT moved_VVD backwards_RL or_CC forwards_RL along_II the_AT scale_NN1 after_II each_DD1 attribute_NN1 &equo;_" or_CC &bquo;_" 1_MC1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Started_VVD with_IW my_APPGE pen_NN1 in_II the_AT middle_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
2_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
Moved_VVN up_RP or_CC down_RP accordingly_RR to_II positivity/negativity_NN1 of_IO the_AT adjective_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT strategy_NN1 of_IO key_JJ characteristics_NN2 involved_VVD rating_VVG certain_JJ characteristics_NN2 more_RGR strongly_RR in_II either_DD1 direction_NN1 than_CSN others_NN2 ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 &bquo;_" using_VVG the_AT strongest_JJT words_NN2 as_II a_AT1 guide_NN1 to_II an_AT1 overall_JJ score_NN1 and_CC ignoring_VVG the_AT weaker_JJR contradictory_JJ ones_NN2 &equo;_" or_CC &bquo;_" weighed_VVD up_RP which_DDQ characteristics_NN2 I_PPIS1 considered_VVD most_RGT important_JJ ,_, i.e._REX whether_CSW trustworthiness_NN1 was_VBDZ more_RGR important_JJ to_II me_PPIO1 than_CSN politeness_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT realist_NN1 strategy_NN1 involved_VVD comparing_VVG the_AT description_NN1 of_IO the_AT person_NN1 with_IW the_AT subject_NN1 him/herself_FU or_CC someone_PN1 the_AT subject_NN1 was_VBDZ familiar_JJ with_IW ;_; &bquo;_" I_PPIS1 also_RR related_VVN a_AT1 lot_NN1 of_IO the_AT adjectives_NN2 to_II whether_CSW they_PPHS2 were_VBDR like_II me_PPIO1 &equo;_" ,_, &bquo;_" &hellip;_... and_CC rated_VVD the_AT person_NN1 as_CS21 if_CS22 I_PPIS1 knew_VVD them_PPHO2 personally_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
Could_VM I_PPIS1 have_VHI them_PPHO2 as_II a_AT1 friend/enemy_NN1 ?_? &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
Order_NN1 effects_NN2 strategy_NN1 involved_VVD the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO the_AT position_NN1 of_IO each_DD1 adjective_NN1 in_II the_AT list_NN1 to_II the_AT impression_NN1 formed_VVD ;_; &bquo;_" found_VVD that_CST the_AT last_MD few_DA2 adjectives_NN2 had_VHD more_RRR influence_VV0 especially_RR if_CS they_PPHS2 reflected_VVD negative_JJ points_NN2 of_IO the_AT personality_NN1 &equo;_" ,_, &bquo;_" when_CS the_AT list_NN1 ended_VVN with_IW several_DA2 good_JJ qualities_NN2 this_DD1 tended_VVD to_TO affect_VVI any_DD answer_NN1 since_CS they_PPHS2 remained_VVD more_RGR prominent_JJ in_II my_APPGE mind_NN1 &equo;_" ,_, and_CC &bquo;_" tended_VVD to_TO remember_VVI first_MD 3_MC adjectives_NN2 better_RRR than_CSN last_MD 3_MC &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 seventh_MD final_JJ category_NN1 covered_VVD miscellaneous_JJ responses_NN2 which_DDQ would_VM not_XX fit_VVI neatly_RR into_II either_DD1 of_IO the_AT six_MC other_JJ strategies_NN2 ;_; these_DD2 included_VVN &bquo;_" if_CS they_PPHS2 sounded_VVD incongruous_JJ ,_, &lsqb;_( I_ZZ1 &rsqb;_) tended_VVD to_TO choose_VVI an_AT1 unfavourable_JJ response_NN1 &equo;_" and_CC &bquo;_" it_PPH1 was_VBDZ difficult_JJ because_CS I_PPIS1 kept_VVD forgetting_VVG what_DDQ had_VHD gone_VVN before_II so_RG probably_RR ended_VVN up_RP guessing_VVG &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Table_NN1 2_MC and_CC Fig._NN1 2_MC shows_VVZ the_AT frequency_NN1 of_IO each_DD1 strategy_NN1 used_VVD ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ found_VVN that_CST key_JJ characteristics_NN2 was_VBDZ by_RR21 far_RR22 the_AT most_RGT popular_JJ strategy_NN1 ,_, followed_VVN by_II realist_NN1 strategy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT least_RGT popular_JJ strategies_NN2 were_VBDR miscellaneous_JJ and_CC order_NN1 effects_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT dominance_NN1 of_IO the_AT key_JJ characteristics_NN2 and_CC realist_NN1 strategies_NN2 shows_VVZ that_CST the_AT subjects_NN2 were_VBDR ,_, generally_RR ,_, comparing_VVG the_AT descriptions_NN2 of_IO the_AT target_NN1 person_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 standard_NN1 with_IW which_DDQ they_PPHS2 could_VM identify_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
Also_RR ,_, the_AT subjects_NN2 found_VVD that_CST certain_JJ traits_NN2 which_DDQ they_PPHS2 felt_VVD strongly_RR about_RP were_VBDR important_JJ to_II whether_CSW they_PPHS2 were_VBDR likeable_JJ or_CC not_XX ._. 
</s>
<s>
Naturally_RR ,_, if_CS someone_PN1 has_VHZ a_AT1 characteristic_NN1 you_PPY strongly_RR disapprove_VV0 of_IO you_PPY will_VM rate_VVI them_PPHO2 as_CSA being_VBG more_RGR favourable_JJ and_CC vice-versa_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
Order_NN1 effects_NN2 was_VBDZ the_AT least_RGT common_JJ of_IO the_AT main_JJ content_JJ areas_NN2 as_II the_AT order_NN1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT adjectives_NN2 were_VBDR mentioned_VVN seemed_VVD unlikely_JJ to_TO affect_VVI the_AT way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ somebody_PN1 judged_VVD the_AT merits_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 person_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II the_AT accounts_NN2 of_IO first_MD meetings_NN2 ,_, the_AT subjects_NN2 generally_RR described_VVN the_AT situation_NN1 ,_, physical_JJ appearance_NN1 and_CC attractiveness_NN1 (_( the_AT first_MD meetings_NN2 described_VVN were_VBDR often_RR with_IW members_NN2 of_IO the_AT opposite_JJ sex_NN1 )_) ,_, details_NN2 of_IO the_AT initial_JJ conversation_NN1 ,_, comparisons_NN2 of_IO the_AT person_NN1 with_IW oneself_PNX1 ,_, and_CC reaction_NN1 of_IO the_AT other_JJ person_NN1 to_II themselves_PPX2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II many_DA2 cases_NN2 ,_, first_MD impressions_NN2 were_VBDR different_JJ from_II the_AT opinion_NN1 that_DD1 later_RRR developed_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT physical_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO the_AT person_NN1 seemed_VVD to_TO be_VBI most_RGT important_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO the_AT other_JJ person_NN1 at_II initial_JJ meetings_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Personality_NN1 was_VBDZ rarely_RR mentioned_VVN explicitly_RR ,_, but_CCB sometimes_RT comparisons_NN2 were_VBDR made_VVN with_IW the_AT person_NN1 's_GE self_NN1 and_CC aspects_NN2 of_IO conversation_NN1 were_VBDR sometimes_RT described_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Discussion_NN1 If_CS statistical_JJ tests_NN2 had_VHD been_VBN performed_VVN on_II the_AT results_NN2 of_IO the_AT experiment_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ likely_JJ ,_, from_II Anderson_NP1 and_CC Barrios_FW (_( 1961_MC )_) ,_, that_CST a_AT1 primacy_NN1 effect_NN1 would_VM have_VHI been_VBN obtained_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Normally_RR ,_, this_DD1 result_NN1 would_VM be_VBI explained_VVN in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT three_MC causal_JJ processes_NN2 of_IO attention_NN1 decrement_NN1 ,_, discounting_VVG ,_, and_CC assimilation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 would_VM then_RT be_VBI necessary_JJ to_TO perform_VVI further_JJR experiments_NN2 to_TO support_VVI our_APPGE chosen_JJ explanation_NN1 for_IF the_AT primacy_NN1 effect_NN1 obtained_VVN ,_, using_VVG the_AT model_NN1 shown_VVN in_II Fig._NN1 3_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II this_DD1 way_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 would_VM generate_VVI our_APPGE scientific_JJ theory_NN1 of_IO first_MD impressions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, another_DD1 way_NN1 of_IO explaining_VVG this_DD1 effect_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO ask_VVI the_AT subjects_NN2 how_RRQ they_PPHS2 performed_VVD the_AT experimental_JJ task_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
That_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, to_TO explain_VVI the_AT experimental_JJ findings_NN2 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT subjects_NN2 '_GE account_NN1 of_IO the_AT experimental_JJ rather_II21 than_II22 causal_JJ processes_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Analysis_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 strategies_NN2 showed_VVD that_CST subjects_NN2 prefer_VV0 to_TO use_VVI key_JJ characteristics_NN2 and_CC realist_NN1 strategies_NN2 when_CS deciding_VVG the_AT favourability_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 person_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
More_DAR than_CSN one_MC1 strategy_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR often_RR used_VVN when_CS deciding_VVG this_DD1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Other_JJ strategies_NN2 with_IW similar_JJ popularity_NN1 were_VBDR :_: serial_JJ strategy_NN1 ,_, compare_VV0 and_CC contrast_NN1 ,_, and_CC overall_JJ impression_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
All_DB three_MC of_IO these_DD2 involve_VV0 some_DD technique_NN1 by_II which_DDQ after_II hearing_VVG each_DD1 of_IO the_AT adjectives_NN2 the_AT subject_NN1 decides_VVZ whether_CSW the_AT target_NN1 person_NN1 appears_VVZ positive_JJ or_CC negative_JJ in_II his/her_APPGE favour_NN1 and_CC by_II what_DDQ degree_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_IF each_DD1 of_IO these_DD2 techniques_NN2 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ slight_JJ variation_NN1 as_II21 to_II22 how_RRQ the_AT subject_NN1 uses_VVZ each_DD1 of_IO the_AT adjectives_NN2 to_TO form_VVI a_AT1 full_JJ impression_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Some_DD of_IO the_AT strategies_NN2 used_VVN could_VM be_VBI made_VVN to_TO explain_VVI the_AT primacy_NN1 effect_NN1 found_VVD ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 can_VM be_VBI compared_VVN with_IW the_AT causal_JJ processes_NN2 mentioned_VVD ._. 
</s>
<s>
Attention_NN1 decrement_NN1 can_VM be_VBI compared_VVN to_II the_AT order_NN1 effect_NN1 in_II cases_NN2 where_RRQ subjects_NN2 &bquo;_" hold_VV0 on_RP &equo;_" to_II initial_JJ words_NN2 and_CC do_VD0 n't_XX pay_VVI attention_NN1 to_II later_JJR words_NN2 &mdash;_- ;_; &bquo;_" tended_VVD to_TO remember_VVI first_MD 3_MC adjectives_NN2 better_RRR than_CSN last_MD 3_MC &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, the_AT order_NN1 effect_NN1 strategy_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX always_RR support_VVI attentional_JJ decrement_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II many_DA2 cases_NN2 ,_, the_AT latter_DA variables_NN2 were_VBDR accounted_VVN for_IF more_DAR than_CSN initial_JJ variables_NN2 &mdash;_- ;_; &bquo;_" first_MD or_CC last_MD words_NN2 were_VBDR in_II many_DA2 cases_NN2 influential_JJ in_II my_APPGE decision_NN1 making_VVG process_NN1 &equo;_" and_CC &bquo;_" found_VVD that_CST the_AT last_MD few_DA2 adjectives_NN2 had_VHD more_RRR influence_VV0 especially_RR if_CS they_PPHS2 reflected_VVD negative_JJ points_NN2 of_IO the_AT personality_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT discounting_NN1 and_CC assimilation_NN1 processes_NN2 bear_VV0 little_JJ comparison_NN1 to_II descriptions_NN2 made_VVN in_II any_DD of_IO the_AT content_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ mainly_RR because_CS although_CS some_DD adjectives_NN2 precedes_VVZ others_NN2 it_PPH1 is_VBZ within_II a_AT1 relatively_RR small_JJ space_NN1 of_IO time_NNT1 and_CC a_AT1 comparison_NN1 between_II adjectives_NN2 relating_VVG to_II the_AT situation_NN1 versus_II those_DD2 to_II the_AT person_NN1 can_VM not_XX really_RR be_VBI made_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Also_RR ,_, although_CS the_AT order_NN1 effect_NN1 strategy_NN1 was_VBDZ used_VVN ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ ,_, next_II21 to_II22 miscellaneous_JJ ,_, the_AT least_RGT common_JJ strategy_NN1 to_TO be_VBI described_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 leaves_VVZ little_DA1 explanation_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 primacy_NN1 effect_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT important_JJ is_VBZ that_CST this_DD1 experimental_JJ method_NN1 is_VBZ only_RR one_MC1 way_NN1 of_IO first_MD impressions_NN2 using_VVG the_AT method_NN1 shown_VVN in_II Fig._NN1 1_MC1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 method_NN1 is_VBZ characterised_VVN on_II a_AT1 hypothesis-driven_JJ approach_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
An_AT1 alternative_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 data-driven_JJ approach_NN1 in_II which_DDQ we_PPIS2 base_VV0 our_APPGE investigation_NN1 of_IO first_MD impressions_NN2 on_II people_NN 's_GE experience_NN1 ,_, observations_NN2 and_CC accounts_NN2 and_CC then_RT develop_VV0 informal_JJ theories_NN2 on_II the_AT basis_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
In_II accounts_NN2 that_CST were_VBDR given_VVN of_IO first_MD meetings_NN2 we_PPIS2 find_VV0 that_CST the_AT situation_NN1 is_VBZ often_RR important_JJ as_CSA it_PPH1 is_VBZ usually_RR mentioned_VVN ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 means_VVZ that_CST the_AT environment_NN1 is_VBZ often_RR very_RG important_JJ to_II the_AT forming_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 initial_JJ impression_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
When_CS describing_VVG the_AT person_NN1 in_II question_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 reference_NN1 to_II physical_JJ appearance_NN1 is_VBZ often_RR made_VVN showing_VVG that_DD1 physical_JJ appearance_NN1 is_VBZ very_RG important_JJ ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ also_RR the_AT first_MD thing_NN1 we_PPIS2 can_VM tell_VVI about_II a_AT1 person_NN1 when_RRQ meeting_VVG for_IF the_AT first_MD time_NNT1 ._. 
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<s>
Accounts_NN2 of_IO the_AT other_JJ person_NN1 personality_NN1 although_CS aspects_NN2 of_IO conversation_NN1 were_VBDR sometimes_RT included_VVN ,_, indicating_VVG similarity_NN1 in_II interests_NN2 between_II the_AT two_MC parties_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
From_II this_DD1 ,_, we_PPIS2 find_VV0 that_DD1 first_MD impressions_NN2 are_VBR extremely_RR important_JJ ;_; physical_JJ appearance_NN1 and_CC the_AT things_NN2 we_PPIS2 can_VM first_MD tell_VVI about_II a_AT1 person_NN1 are_VBR very_RG important_JJ when_CS developing_VVG that_DD1 impression_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
In_II some_DD respects_NN2 these_DD2 accounts_NN2 are_VBR similar_JJ to_II those_DD2 in_II the_AT experimental_JJ situation_NN1 where_RRQ key_JJ characteristics_NN2 were_VBDR found_VVN to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 common_JJ strategy_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 ties_VVZ in_RP with_IW the_AT idea_NN1 that_CST people_NN like_II others_NN2 which_DDQ share_VV0 similar_JJ interests_NN2 to_II themselves_PPX2 ._. 
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<s>
They_PPHS2 differ_VV0 in_II that_DD1 when_CS the_AT impressions_NN2 are_VBR described_VVN in_II the_AT accounts_NN2 of_IO first_MD meetings_NN2 ,_, the_AT situation_NN1 is_VBZ important_JJ to_II the_AT impression_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Also_RR ,_, subjects_NN2 were_VBDR asked_VVN to_TO describe_VVI the_AT first_MD meeting_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 close_JJ friend_NN1 or_CC partner_NN1 ;_; in_II this_DD1 case_NN1 all_DB the_AT persons_NN2 described_VVN in_II the_AT account_NN1 were_VBDR found_VVN to_TO be_VBI favourable_JJ and_CC the_AT account_NN1 are_VBR being_VBG made_VVN in_II retrospect_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Therefore_RR ,_, instead_II21 of_II22 showing_VVG the_AT strategy_NN1 you_PPY use_VV0 you_PPY are_VBR really_RR showing_VVG the_AT value_NN1 of_IO first_MD impressions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II the_AT experimental_JJ situation_NN1 the_AT subject_NN1 is_VBZ merely_RR hearing_VVG a_AT1 description_NN1 of_IO the_AT person_NN1 from_II varying_JJ points_NN2 of_IO view_NN1 ,_, the_AT person_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX present_JJ so_CS he_PPHS1 can_VM be_VBI judged_VVN by_II the_AT subject_NN1 her/himself_FU in_II a_AT1 social_JJ context_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 leaves_VVZ the_AT experimental_JJ situation_NN1 at_II a_AT1 certain_JJ disadvantage_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
From_II this_DD1 experiment_NN1 ,_, I_PPIS1 would_VM be_VBI inclined_VVN to_II belief_NN1 that_CST psychology_NN1 should_VM be_VBI predominantly_RR an_AT1 activity_NN1 in_II which_DDQ we_PPIS2 use_VV0 non-experimental_JJ methods_NN2 for_IF understanding_VVG people_NN 's_GE experiences_NN2 in_II their_APPGE own_DA terms_NN2 ,_, taking_VVG into_II account_NN1 the_AT social_JJ context_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 experiments_NN2 ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 an_AT1 activity_NN1 in_II which_DDQ we_PPIS2 transform_VV0 common_JJ sense_NN1 into_II scientific_JJ knowledge_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II the_AT latter_DA ,_, we_PPIS2 eliminate_VV0 the_AT variations_NN2 and_CC complexities_NN2 of_IO human_JJ nature_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ are_VBR necessary_JJ to_TO explain_VVI human_JJ behaviour_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II using_VVG the_AT former_DA ,_, however_RR ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ sometimes_RT difficult_JJ to_TO explain_VVI how_RRQ things_NN2 are_VBR actually_RR working_VVG at_II the_AT moment_NN1 they_PPHS2 occur_VV0 rather_II21 than_II22 understanding_NN1 what_DDQ we_PPIS2 see_VV0 in_II retrospect_NN1 after_II some_DD factor_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 clouding_VVG of_IO memory_NN1 or_CC change_NN1 of_IO opinion_NN1 may_VM have_VHI occurred_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Generally_RR ,_, this_DD1 method_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, I_PPIS1 believe_VV0 is_VBZ more_RGR useful_JJ for_IF studying_VVG the_AT human_JJ condition_NN1 than_CSN an_AT1 experimental_JJ approach_NN1 which_DDQ looks_VVZ at_II behaviour_NN1 as_II the_AT result_NN1 of_IO manipulation_NN1 of_IO variables_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
APPENDIX_NN1 UNIVERSITY_NN1 OF_IO EDINBURGH_NP1 ,_, DEPARTMENT_NN1 OF_IO BUSINESS_NN1 STUDIES_NN2 BEHAVIOUR_NN1 IN_II ORGANISATIONS_NN2 PROJECT_VV0 KIERAN_NP1 LEE_NP1 TUTORS_NN2 NAME_VV0 :_: PATRICIA_NP1 FINDLAY_NP1 2nd_MD of_IO February_NPM1 1990_MC Introduction_NN1 :_: Organisations_NN2 can_VM only_RR achieve_VVI their_APPGE goals_NN2 by_II the_AT coordinated_JJ efforts_NN2 of_IO their_APPGE members_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ management_NN1 's_GE job_NN1 to_TO integrate_VVI activities_NN2 and_CC get_VVI work_NN1 done_VDN through_II other_JJ members_NN2 of_IO the_AT organisation_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
I_PPIS1 interviewed_VVD two_MC managers_NN2 from_II Burger_NN1 King_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO analyse_VVI the_AT role_NN1 of_IO managers_NN2 by_II relating_VVG information_NN1 gathered_VVN in_II the_AT interview_NN1 to_II literature_NN1 on_II managerial_JJ control_NN1 ,_, power_NN1 ,_, leadership_NN1 ,_, motivation_NN1 ,_, and_CC technology_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Job_NN1 description_NN1 and_CC operational_JJ functioning_NN1 :_: I_PPIS1 interviewed_VVD the_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 and_CC personnel_NN2 manager_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 large_JJ and_CC busy_JJ Burger_NN1 King_NN1 fast_JJ food_NN1 establishment_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT parent_NN1 company_NN1 has_VHZ recently_RR changed_VVN hands_NN2 and_CC decided_VVN to_TO change_VVI the_AT existing_JJ Wimpy_JJ into_II a_AT1 Burger_NN1 King_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
All_DB the_AT staff_NN have_VH0 remained_VVN the_AT same_DA ,_, but_CCB the_AT managers_NN2 I_PPIS1 interviewed_VVD are_VBR new_JJ to_II this_DD1 particular_JJ store_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 appears_VVZ that_CST previous_JJ senior_JJ management_NN1 were_VBDR not_XX suitable_JJ for_IF an_AT1 establishment_NN1 with_IW such_DA a_AT1 high_JJ turn-over_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
All_DB the_AT staff_NN ,_, including_II senior_JJ management_NN1 are_VBR new_JJ to_II the_AT Burger_NN1 King_NN1 system_NN1 so_CS there_EX have_VH0 been_VBN several_DA2 teething_NN1 problems_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 system_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN in_II operation_NN1 for_IF three_MC months_NNT2 now_RT so_RR the_AT staff_NN are_VBR gradually_RR becoming_VVG more_RRR settled_VVN ._. 
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<s>
The_AT old_JJ system_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX unlike_II the_AT new_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT organisation_NN1 of_IO work_NN1 is_VBZ highly_RR structured_VVN as_CSA shown_VVN below_RL :_: Crew_NP1 members_NN2 are_VBR rotated_VVN between_II areas_NN2 on_II a_AT1 daily_JJ basis_NN1 so_CS21 that_CS22 they_PPHS2 become_VV0 skilled_JJ in_II all_DB forms_NN2 of_IO work_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 are_VBR also_RR rotated_VVN within_II areas_NN2 to_II particular_JJ jobs_NN2 depending_II21 on_II22 their_APPGE performance_NN1 and_CC the_AT pace_NN1 of_IO work_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Although_CS I_PPIS1 interviewed_VVD the_AT two_MC most_RGT senior_JJ managers_NN2 in_II the_AT store_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 both_RR operated_VVN as_CSA line_NN1 managers_NN2 before_II being_VBG promoted_VVN ,_, and_CC take_VV0 over-all_JJ charge_NN1 of_IO the_AT shop_NN1 floor_NN1 on_II particular_JJ days_NNT2 ._. 
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<s>
Both_DB2 of_IO them_PPHO2 also_RR help_VV0 when_RRQ the_AT store_NN1 is_VBZ busy_JJ ,_, which_DDQ includes_VVZ lunch_NN1 hour_NNT1 between_II twelve_MC and_CC two_MC o'clock_RA ._. 
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<s>
The_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 has_VHZ worked_VVN his_APPGE way_NN1 up_RP from_II the_AT bottom_NN1 and_CC is_VBZ now_RT concerned_JJ with_IW the_AT financial_JJ side_NN1 of_IO operations_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT personnel_NN2 manager_NN1 studied_VVD resource_NN1 management_NN1 at_II college_NN1 and_CC joined_VVD the_AT company_NN1 as_II a_AT1 line_NN1 manager_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 differences_NN2 in_II education_NN1 came_VVD through_RP in_II the_AT interview_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT personnel_NN2 manager_NN1 tended_VVD to_TO answer_VVI questions_NN2 from_II a_AT1 more_RGR theoretical_JJ point_NN1 of_IO view_NN1 and_CC the_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 tended_VVD to_TO be_VBI more_RGR practical_JJ in_II his_APPGE answering_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT role_NN1 of_IO management_NN1 :_: It_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ to_TO understand_VVI how_RRQ managers_NN2 perceive_VV0 their_APPGE role_NN1 in_II organisations_NN2 and_CC to_TO know_VVI what_DDQ they_PPHS2 would_VM class_NN1 as_CSA good_JJ management_NN1 practice_NN1 to_TO understand_VVI why_RRQ they_PPHS2 themselves_PPX2 do_VD0 things_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 saw_VVD his_APPGE role_NN1 as_CSA increasing_JJ productivity_NN1 ,_, whereas_CS the_AT personnel_NN2 manager_NN1 saw_VVD her_APPGE role_NN1 as_CSA organising_VVG and_CC motivating_VVG staff_NN towards_II the_AT organisation_NN1 's_GE objectives_NN2 and_CC looking_VVG after_II the_AT staff_NN 's_GE well-being_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Obviously_RR these_DD2 different_JJ view-points_NN2 are_VBR related_VVN to_II the_AT manager_NN1 's_GE particular_JJ speciality_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 's_GE job_NN1 appeared_VVD to_TO involve_VVI a_AT1 large_JJ amount_NN1 of_IO administration_NN1 of_IO the_AT system_NN1 as_II31 opposed_II32 to_II33 the_AT actual_JJ coordination_NN1 of_IO staff_NN activities_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT operational_JJ system_NN1 appeared_VVD ,_, to_II a_AT1 certain_JJ extent_NN1 ,_, to_TO be_VBI fairly_RR regulated_VVN with_IW highly_RR structured_VVN and_CC defined_JJ job_NN1 descriptions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 left_VVD the_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 free_JJ for_IF other_JJ activities_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 may_VM account_VVI for_IF his_APPGE lack_NN1 of_IO concern_NN1 for_IF the_AT organisation_NN1 of_IO people_NN ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 may_VM ,_, however_RR ,_, be_VBI related_VVN to_II how_RRQ he_PPHS1 believes_VVZ his_APPGE success_NN1 to_TO be_VBI assessed_VVN by_II more_RGR senior_JJ management_NN1 in_II the_AT organisation_NN1 ,_, presumably_RR by_II the_AT profitability_NN1 of_IO the_AT establishment_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Due_II21 to_II22 these_DD2 different_JJ perspectives_NN2 these_DD2 managers_NN2 may_VM behave_VVI differently_RR towards_II subordinates_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 did_VDD indeed_RR say_VVI he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 fairly_RR hard-line_JJ manager_NN1 looking_VVG for_IF efficiency_NN1 ,_, whereas_CS the_AT personnel_NN2 manager_NN1 took_VVD a_AT1 more_RGR compassionate_JJ stance_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Both_DB2 managers_NN2 said_VVD they_PPHS2 would_VM assess_VVI managerial_JJ competence_NN1 by_II a_AT1 person_NN1 's_GE ability_NN1 to_TO achieve_VVI the_AT goals_NN2 expected_VVN of_IO them_PPHO2 by_II the_AT organisation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 includes_VVZ among_II other_JJ things_NN2 controlling_VVG ,_, coordinating_VVG ,_, motivating_VVG ,_, and_CC planning_NN1 as_CSA specified_VVN by_II Brech_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II this_DD1 particular_JJ organisation_NN1 planning_NN1 will_VM not_XX take_VVI a_AT1 major_JJ role_NN1 because_CS the_AT system_NN1 is_VBZ already_RR well-defined_JJ and_CC should_VM operate_VVI in_II the_AT same_DA way_NN1 on_II a_AT1 day-to-day_JJ basis_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 has_VHZ no_RR say_VV0 in_II objectives_NN2 of_IO the_AT organisation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 follows_VVZ ,_, therefore_RR ,_, to_II a_AT1 certain_JJ extent_NN1 that_CST initiative_NN1 and_CC creativity_NN1 are_VBR not_XX very_RG important_JJ characteristics_NN2 for_IF lower_JJR level_NN1 managers_NN2 in_II this_DD1 organisation_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Power_NN1 :_: Both_DB2 the_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 and_CC the_AT personnel_NN2 manger_VV0 at_II Burger_NN1 King_NN1 did_VDD not_XX like_VVI the_AT use_NN1 of_IO the_AT word_NN1 power_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Even_CS21 when_CS22 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ defined_VVN as_II the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO change_VVI or_CC control_VVI the_AT behaviour_NN1 of_IO others_NN2 they_PPHS2 felt_VVD it_PPH1 was_VBDZ inappropriate_JJ ._. 
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<s>
The_AT reason_NN1 for_IF this_DD1 was_VBDZ not_XX entirely_RR apparent_JJ ,_, but_CCB they_PPHS2 said_VVD that_CST the_AT word_NN1 power_NN1 was_VBDZ too_RG strong_JJ to_TO describe_VVI their_APPGE control_NN1 over_II the_AT employees_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ emphasised_VVN by_II the_AT Burger_NN1 King_NN1 policy_NN1 to_TO call_VVI everyone_PN1 by_II their_APPGE first_MD names_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
In_II my_APPGE mind_NN1 this_DD1 encourages_VVZ communication_NN1 on_II a_AT1 one-to-one_JJ basis_NN1 therefore_RR reducing_VVG power_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
If_CS a_AT1 manager_NN1 was_VBDZ addressed_VVN by_II his_APPGE surname_NN1 and_CC subordinates_NN2 by_II their_APPGE first_MD names_VVZ the_AT power_NN1 of_IO the_AT manager_NN1 would_VM increase_VVI because_CS subordinates_NN2 are_VBR no_RR21 longer_RR22 treated_VVN as_CSA equals_VVZ ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT main_JJ reason_NN1 these_DD2 managers_NN2 have_VH0 power_NN1 is_VBZ because_CS they_PPHS2 possess_VV0 rewards_NN2 desired_VVN by_II employees_NN2 and_CC have_VH0 the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO bring_VVI about_RP undesirable_JJ outcomes_NN2 for_IF those_DD2 that_CST do_VD0 not_XX comply_VVI with_IW directives_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 forms_NN2 of_IO power_NN1 are_VBR commonly_RR known_VVN as_II reward_NN1 and_CC coercive_JJ power_NN1 respectively_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
People_NN also_RR obey_VV0 orders_NN2 given_VVN by_II these_DD2 managers_NN2 because_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT leader_NN1 's_GE position_NN1 to_TO exercise_VVI influence_NN1 in_II the_AT organisation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ called_VVN position_NN1 power_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT most_RGT influential_JJ types_NN2 of_IO power_NN1 is_VBZ called_VVN expert_NN1 power_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ because_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT easiest_JJT for_IF the_AT employees_NN2 to_TO rationalise_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
If_CS an_AT1 employee_NN1 respects_VVZ a_AT1 person_NN1 for_IF his/her_APPGE knowledge_NN1 or_CC ability_NN1 to_TO do_VDI their_APPGE job_NN1 ,_, then_RT they_PPHS2 will_VM be_VBI more_RGR willing_JJ to_TO take_VVI order_NN1 for_IF this_DD1 person_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 managers_NN2 did_VDD not_XX come_VVI across_RL as_CSA having_VHG expert_NN1 power_NN1 ,_, because_CS they_PPHS2 had_VHD had_VHN minimal_JJ training_NN1 and_CC appeared_VVD to_TO be_VBI unorganised_JJ and_CC therefore_RR unprofessional_JJ in_II their_APPGE conduct_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 appeared_VVD to_TO possess_VVI a_AT1 certain_JJ charisma_NN1 which_DDQ enhanced_VVD his_APPGE position_NN1 as_II a_AT1 manager_NN1 of_IO others_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ called_VVN personal_JJ power_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Control_VV0 :_: The_AT aim_NN1 of_IO management_NN1 control_NN1 systems_NN2 is_VBZ to_TO bring_VVI about_RP organisational_JJ conformity_NN1 and_CC to_TO achieve_VVI the_AT goals_NN2 of_IO the_AT organisation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Burger_NN1 King_NN1 organisation_NN1 operates_VVZ a_AT1 highly_RR bureaucratic_JJ control_NN1 system_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ highly_RR structured_VVN with_IW strict_JJ procedures_NN2 and_CC rules_NN2 for_IF every_AT1 task_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT technology_NN1 is_VBZ designed_VVN to_TO limit_VVI variation_NN1 in_II the_AT conduct_NN1 of_IO tasks_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 reward_NN1 system_NN1 is_VBZ in_II operation_NN1 whereby_RRQ competent_JJ staff_NN get_VV0 stars_NN2 on_II their_APPGE badges_NN2 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 discipline_NN1 procedure_NN1 reinforces_VVZ conformity_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT control_NN1 system_NN1 appeared_VVD to_TO be_VBI designed_VVN well_RR and_CC was_VBDZ well-regarded_JJ by_II staff_NN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Control_NN1 can_VM among_II other_JJ things_NN2 build_VV0 security_NN1 and_CC help_VV0 management_NN1 identify_VVI with_IW the_AT organisational_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT reason_NN1 for_IF this_DD1 is_VBZ that_CST the_AT system_NN1 is_VBZ so_RG highly_RR structured_VVN that_CST there_EX is_VBZ no_AT question_NN1 of_IO uncertainty_NN1 and_CC it_PPH1 would_VM therefore_RR be_VBI impossible_JJ to_TO impair_VVI the_AT efficiency_NN1 of_IO it_PPH1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 came_VVD across_RL in_II the_AT interview_NN1 because_CS although_CS the_AT managers_NN2 were_VBDR under_II a_AT1 lot_NN1 of_IO pressure_NN1 they_PPHS2 did_VDD not_XX appear_VVI to_TO be_VBI panicked_VVN or_CC stressed_VVN by_II it_PPH1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Leadership_NN1 :_: Leadership_NN1 can_VM essentially_RR be_VBI described_VVN as_II a_AT1 relationship_NN1 through_II which_DDQ one_MC1 person_NN1 influences_VVZ the_AT behaviour_NN1 of_IO other_JJ people_NN ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ commonly_RR believed_VVN that_CST to_TO be_VBI an_AT1 affective_JJ manager_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO exercise_VVI the_AT role_NN1 of_IO leadership_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Both_DB2 managers_NN2 that_CST I_PPIS1 interviewed_VVD believed_VVN quite_RG adamantly_RR that_DD1 leadership_NN1 qualities_NN2 were_VBDR something_PN1 somebody_PN1 either_RR had_VHD or_CC did_VDD not_XX have_VHI and_CC could_VM not_XX be_VBI developed_VVN through_II training_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ more_RGR commonly_RR known_VVN as_II the_AT trait_NN1 approach_NN1 to_II leadership_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 believed_VVD these_DD2 qualities_NN2 were_VBDR innate_JJ ,_, whereas_CS the_AT personnel_NN2 manager_NN1 believed_VVD they_PPHS2 developed_VVD as_II a_AT1 person_NN1 developed_VVN into_II an_AT1 adult_NN1 ,_, from_II which_DDQ point_VV0 they_PPHS2 could_VM not_XX be_VBI altered_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT personnel_NN2 manager_NN1 's_GE view_NN1 appears_VVZ unrealistic_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
If_CS a_AT1 person_NN1 develops_VVZ these_DD2 attributes_NN2 over_II time_NNT1 ,_, it_PPH1 must_VM be_VBI possible_JJ for_IF them_PPHO2 to_TO develop_VVI with_IW practice_NN1 in_II later_JJR life_NN1 or_CC through_II training_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 approach_NN1 to_II leadership_NN1 means_VVZ there_EX is_VBZ more_DAR attention_NN1 given_VVN to_II selection_NN1 as_II31 opposed_II32 to_II33 the_AT training_NN1 of_IO leaders_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 necessity_NN1 for_IF innate_JJ leadership_NN1 qualities_NN2 may_VM affect_VVI these_DD2 managers_NN2 judgement_NN1 when_CS choosing_VVG someone_PN1 for_IF a_AT1 supervisory_JJ job_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT trait_NN1 approach_NN1 to_II leadership_NN1 has_VHZ several_DA2 limitations_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Byrd_NP1 studied_VVD all_DB research_NN1 on_II the_AT trait_NN1 approach_NN1 that_CST had_VHD been_VBN done_VDN up_RG21 to_RG22 the_AT 1940_MC 's_GE and_CC only_RR found_VVD 5%_NNU of_IO all_DB traits_NN2 identified_VVN for_IF leaders_NN2 common_JJ to_II all_DB the_AT research_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Apart_II21 from_II22 this_DD1 finding_NN1 ,_, judgement_NN1 in_II determining_VVG who_PNQS is_VBZ a_AT1 good_JJ leader_NN1 is_VBZ bound_VVNK to_TO be_VBI subjective_JJ to_II a_AT1 certain_JJ extent_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT list_NN1 of_IO possible_JJ traits_NN2 is_VBZ very_RG long_JJ and_CC there_EX is_VBZ not_XX always_RR agreement_NN1 on_II the_AT most_RGT important_JJ trait_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
A_AT1 more_RGR realistic_JJ approach_NN1 to_II leadership_NN1 may_VM focus_VVI on_II the_AT situation_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
People_NN with_IW different_JJ personalities_NN2 from_II different_JJ backgrounds_NN2 are_VBR affective_JJ leaders_NN2 in_II different_JJ situations_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Obviously_RR ,_, the_AT type_NN1 of_IO leadership_NN1 qualities_NN2 required_VVN for_IF a_AT1 fast_JJ food_NN1 establishment_NN1 are_VBR not_XX the_AT same_DA as_CSA for_IF an_AT1 insurance_NN1 company_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT assumption_NN1 behind_II these_DD2 theories_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST employees_NN2 will_VM work_VVI harder_JJR for_IF managers_NN2 who_PNQS employ_VV0 certain_JJ styles_NN2 of_IO leadership_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Both_DB2 managers_NN2 said_VVD their_APPGE style_NN1 of_IO leadership_NN1 was_VBDZ authoritarian_JJ ,_, where_CS power_NN1 focuses_VVZ with_IW the_AT manager_NN1 as_II31 opposed_II32 to_II33 democratic_JJ ,_, where_CS power_NN1 focuses_VVZ with_IW the_AT group_NN1 as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 said_VVD that_CST the_AT reason_NN1 they_PPHS2 were_VBDR authoritarian_JJ was_VBDZ due_II21 to_II22 the_AT pressure_NN1 involved_JJ with_IW the_AT job_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Often_RR there_EX was_VBDZ not_XX enough_DD time_NNT1 to_TO share_VVI decision_NN1 making_VVG with_IW subordinates_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
They_PPHS2 did_VDD feel_VVI that_DD1 increased_JJ participation_NN1 by_II subordinates_NN2 may_VM be_VBI a_AT1 more_RGR effective_JJ way_NN1 of_IO motivating_VVG people_NN but_CCB that_DD1 time_NNT1 limitations_NN2 made_VVD this_DD1 impossible_JJ ._. 
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<s>
The_AT personnel_NN2 manager_NN1 felt_VVD that_CST if_CS she_PPHS1 was_VBDZ working_VVG in_II a_AT1 establishment_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 lower_JJR turn-over_NN1 she_PPHS1 would_VM be_VBI more_RGR democratic_JJ because_CS there_EX would_VM be_VBI more_DAR time_NNT1 ._. 
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<s>
But_CCB it_PPH1 could_VM be_VBI argued_VVN that_CST she_PPHS1 has_VHZ been_VBN placed_VVN in_II a_AT1 high_JJ turn-over_NN1 establishment_NN1 because_CS she_PPHS1 possesses_VVZ an_AT1 authoritarian_JJ style_NN1 of_IO leadership_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Although_CS the_AT style_NN1 of_IO leadership_NN1 both_DB2 managers_NN2 had_VHD was_VBDZ authoritarian_JJ they_PPHS2 both_DB2 said_VVD they_PPHS2 encouraged_VVD employee_NN1 initiative_NN1 and_CC they_PPHS2 also_RR tried_VVD to_TO appear_VVI friendly_JJ and_CC approachable_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 was_VBDZ emphasised_VVN by_II Burger_NN1 King_NN1 's_GE policy_NN1 of_IO first_MD name_NN1 addressing_VVG which_DDQ encourages_VVZ equal-footed_JJ communication_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 may_VM be_VBI an_AT1 indication_NN1 that_CST the_AT Burger_NN1 King_NN1 organisation_NN1 prefers_VVZ a_AT1 participative_JJ style_NN1 of_IO leadership_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Motivation_NN1 :_: The_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 confessed_VVD that_CST staff_NN at_II Burger_NN1 King_NN1 are_VBR poorly_RR motivated_VVN ._. 
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<s>
By_II this_DD1 he_PPHS1 means_VVZ the_AT degree_NN1 to_II which_DDQ an_AT1 individual_NN1 wants_VVZ and_CC chooses_VVZ to_TO engage_VVI in_II certain_JJ specified_JJ behaviour_NN1 is_VBZ low_JJ ._. 
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<s>
He_PPHS1 believed_VVD the_AT key_NN1 to_II motivation_NN1 is_VBZ making_VVG employees_NN2 feel_VVI part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 team_NN1 ,_, and_CC to_TO improve_VVI this_DD1 he_PPHS1 would_VM encourage_VVI informal_JJ social_JJ interaction_NN1 between_II management_NN1 and_CC employees_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 fast_JJ food_NN1 establishment_NN1 has_VHZ a_AT1 high_JJ turn-over_NN1 of_IO staff_NN ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 may_VM be_VBI due_II21 to_II22 the_AT lack_NN1 of_IO motivation_NN1 and_CC low_JJ rate_NN1 of_IO pay_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 said_VVD that_DD1 core_NN1 staff_NN motivation_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 problem_NN1 because_CS after_II a_AT1 while_NNT1 the_AT job_NN1 becomes_VVZ highly_RR repetitive_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT problem_NN1 of_IO motivation_NN1 may_VM be_VBI due_II21 to_II22 the_AT lack_NN1 of_IO self-esteem_NN1 and_CC self-actualisation_NN1 the_AT job_NN1 gives_VVZ the_AT employee_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
According_II21 to_II22 Maslow_NP1 's_GE hierarchical_JJ needs_VVZ model_NN1 companionship_NN1 is_VBZ only_RR third_MD on_II the_AT list_NN1 with_IW self-esteem_NN1 and_CC self-actualisation_NN1 above_II it_PPH1 ._. 
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<s>
Self-esteem_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT need_NN1 to_TO feel_VVI good_JJ about_II oneself_PNX1 and_CC self-actualisation_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT need_NN1 to_TO reach_VVI one_PN1 's_GE full_JJ potential_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Although_CS Maslow_NP1 's_GE model_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX widely_RR accepted_VVN it_PPH1 seems_VVZ to_TO be_VBI fairly_RR accurate_JJ at_II explaining_VVG lack_NN1 of_IO effort_NN1 and_CC commitment_NN1 by_II workers_NN2 at_II Burger_NN1 King_NN1 ._. 
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The_AT job_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX seen_VVN ,_, by_II society_NN1 ,_, to_TO hold_VVI much_DA1 esteem_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
In_II fact_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ often_RR described_VVN as_II one_MC1 of_IO the_AT worst_JJT jobs_NN2 possible_JJ ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 can_VM not_XX be_VBI good_JJ for_IF the_AT employees_NN2 '_GE self-esteem_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Employees_NN2 possibly_RR feel_VV0 they_PPHS2 do_VD0 not_XX reach_VVI their_APPGE full_JJ potential_NN1 in_II the_AT job_NN1 because_CS promotion_NN1 is_VBZ scarce_JJ and_CC the_AT job_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX stimulating_JJ either_RR physically_RR or_CC mentally_RR ._. 
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<s>
The_AT managers_NN2 I_PPIS1 interviewed_VVD appeared_VVD to_TO lack_VVI commitment_NN1 to_II improving_JJ motivation_NN1 ,_, although_CS they_PPHS2 identified_VVD it_PPH1 as_II a_AT1 problem_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 said_VVD he_PPHS1 would_VM motivate_VVI subordinates_NN2 in_II the_AT following_JJ ways_NN2 :_: offering_VVG praise_NN1 ,_, incentives_NN2 ,_, providing_VVG re-training_NN1 ,_, and_CC finally_RR a_AT1 quiet_JJ talk_NN1 if_CS nothing_PN1 else_RR succeeded_VVN ;_; in_II other_JJ words_NN2 threatening_VVG them_PPHO2 with_IW dismissal_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT personnel_NN2 manager_NN1 said_VVD she_PPHS1 would_VM offer_VVI friendliness_NN1 and_CC praise_VVI to_TO motivate_VVI employees_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 methods_NN2 seem_VV0 fairly_RR primitive_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ as_CS21 though_CS22 these_DD2 managers_NN2 expected_JJ motivation_NN1 to_TO stem_VVI from_II the_AT organisation_NN1 as_II31 opposed_II32 to_II33 management_NN1 techniques_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT managers_NN2 could_VM have_VHI improved_VVN motivation_NN1 by_II printing_VVG target_NN1 sheets_NN2 or_CC graphs_NN2 of_IO the_AT store_NN1 's_GE performance_NN1 so_CS21 that_CS22 employees_NN2 had_VHD something_PN1 to_TO aim_VVI for_IF ._. 
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<s>
Technology_NN1 :_: The_AT managers_NN2 I_PPIS1 spoke_VVD to_TO have_VHI both_DB2 taken_VVN up_RP positions_NN2 in_II this_DD1 particular_JJ store_NN1 because_CS previous_JJ management_NN1 were_VBDR not_XX competent_JJ in_II their_APPGE jobs_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
In_II31 addition_II32 to_II33 this_DD1 the_AT shift_NN1 from_II Wimpy_NP1 to_II Burger_NN1 King_NN1 has_VHZ altered_VVN the_AT technology_NN1 used_VVN in_II production_NN1 of_IO the_AT hamburgers_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 said_VVD he_PPHS1 found_VVD the_AT new_JJ technology_NN1 more_RRR labour_VV0 intensive_JJ and_CC less_RGR flexible_JJ ._. 
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<s>
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT new_JJ system_NN1 relies_VVZ on_II more_DAR machines_NN2 for_IF the_AT making_NN1 of_IO different_JJ parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT same_DA hamburger_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT technology_NN1 has_VHZ taken_VVN on_RP a_AT1 more_RGR dominant_JJ role_NN1 in_II controlling_VVG the_AT way_NN1 work_NN1 is_VBZ carried_VVN out_RP and_CC also_RR the_AT number_NN1 of_IO staff_NN involved_JJ in_II the_AT system_NN1 at_II a_AT1 given_JJ time_NNT1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 means_VVZ that_CST the_AT store_NN1 manager_NN1 's_GE objective_NN1 to_TO alter_VVI damage_NN1 done_VDN by_II previous_JJ management_NN1 is_VBZ very_RG difficult_JJ because_CS the_AT system_NN1 is_VBZ now_RT much_RR harder_JJR to_TO manipulate_VVI ._. 
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<s>
Conclusion_NN1 :_: The_AT role_NN1 of_IO management_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX as_RG simple_JJ as_CSA it_PPH1 may_VM appear_VVI at_II first_MD glance_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 project_NN1 analysed_VVD management_NN1 's_GE role_NN1 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 power_NN1 ,_, control_NN1 ,_, leadership_NN1 ,_, motivation_NN1 ,_, and_CC technology_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 would_VM be_VBI impossible_JJ to_TO cover_VVI all_DB areas_NN2 of_IO management_NN1 practice_NN1 within_II the_AT limited_JJ confines_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 project_NN1 ,_, but_CCB I_PPIS1 hope_VV0 to_TO have_VHI covered_VVN all_DB the_AT important_JJ areas_NN2 relevant_JJ to_II these_DD2 manager_NN1 's_GE particular_JJ jobs_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Behaviour_NN1 in_II Organisations_NN2 1989-90_MCMC Lecture_NN1 Notes_NN2 APPENDIX_NN1 The_AT interview_NN1 took_VVD 30_MC minutes_NNT2 for_IF each_DD1 manager_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
I_PPIS1 was_VBDZ given_VVN a_AT1 guided_JJ tour_NN1 of_IO the_AT shop_NN1 floor_NN1 before_II the_AT interview_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Questions_NN2 :_: 1_MC1 )_) What_DDQ would_VM you_PPY say_VVI was_VBDZ the_AT main_JJ task_NN1 of_IO managers_NN2 ?_? 2_MC )_) How_RRQ would_VM you_PPY assess_VVI whether_CSW a_AT1 manager_NN1 or_CC supervisor_NN1 was_VBDZ good_JJ at_II his_APPGE job_NN1 ?_? 3_MC )_) Would_VM you_PPY say_VVI that_CST managers_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO lose_VVI sight_NN1 of_IO labour_NN1 relations_NN2 and_CC concentrate_VVI on_II the_AT market_NN1 ?_? 4_MC )_) Is_VBZ power_NN1 disguised_VVN as_CSA stemming_VVG from_II the_AT organisation_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 management_NN1 at_II Burger_NN1 King_NN1 ?_? 5_MC )_) Would_VM you_PPY say_VVI that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 good_JJ relationship_NN1 between_II management_NN1 and_CC employees_NN2 here_RL ?_? 6_MC )_) Are_VBR employees_NN2 cooperative_JJ ?_? 7_MC )_) Everybody_PN1 is_VBZ called_VVN by_II their_APPGE first_MD names_NN2 ;_; why_RRQ ?_? 8_MC )_) Surely_RR ,_, this_DD1 reduces_VVZ the_AT power_NN1 of_IO the_AT managers_NN2 because_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR less_RGR respected_JJ ._. 
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<s>
9_MC )_) Would_VM you_PPY prefer_VVI if_CSW manager_NN1 's_GE were_VBDR treated_VVN with_IW more_DAR respect_NN1 ?_? 10_MC )_) Do_VD0 you_PPY believe_VVI leadership_NN1 qualities_NN2 are_VBR something_PN1 a_AT1 person_NN1 is_VBZ born_VVN with_IW or_CC can_VM they_PPHS2 be_VBI learnt_VVN ?_? 11_MC )_) Have_VH0 you_PPY had_VHN any_DD specific_JJ leadership_NN1 training_NN1 ?_? 12_MC )_) Do_VD0 you_PPY believe_VVI the_AT style_NN1 of_IO management_NN1 leadership_NN1 affects_VVZ the_AT willingness_NN1 of_IO employees_NN2 to_TO work_VVI ?_? 13_MC )_) What_DDQ would_VM you_PPY say_VVI that_CST your_APPGE style_NN1 of_IO leadership_NN1 is_VBZ ?_? 14_MC )_) Which_DDQ style_NN1 of_IO leadership_NN1 makes_VVZ people_NN more_RGR productive_JJ ?_? 15_MC )_) What_DDQ is_VBZ your_APPGE own_DA personal_JJ philosophy_NN1 as_II a_AT1 leader_NN1 of_IO others_NN2 and_CC as_II a_AT1 manager_NN1 ?_? 16_MC )_) Why_RRQ do_VD0 you_PPY have_VHI more_DAR power_NN1 ?_? 
</s>
<s>
Is_VBZ it_PPH1 due_II21 to_II22 :_: Position_NN1 Have_VH0 a_AT1 valued_JJ resource_NN1 Respected_VVN because_CS you_PPY are_VBR good_JJ at_II your_APPGE job_NN1 Have_VH0 charisma_NN1 17_MC )_) Is_VBZ power_NN1 important_JJ ?_? 18_MC )_) How_RRQ do_VD0 you_PPY motivate_VVI people_NN ?_? 19_MC )_) Is_VBZ it_PPH1 important_JJ to_TO motivate_VVI people_NN or_CC does_VDZ it_PPH1 come_VVI from_II another_DD1 factor_NN1 of_IO the_AT job_NN1 ?_? 20_MC )_) Does_VDZ Burger_NN1 King_NN1 have_VH0 a_AT1 philosophy_NN1 for_IF managing_JJ people_NN ?_? 21_MC )_) How_RRQ has_VHZ the_AT change_NN1 from_II Wimpy_NP1 to_II Burger_NN1 King_NN1 affected_VVN management-employee_JJ relations_NN2 ?_? 22_MC )_) Is_VBZ it_PPH1 an_AT1 improvement_NN1 ,_, if_CS so_RR why_RRQ ?_? 23_MC )_) Do_VD0 you_PPY have_VHI any_DD problems_NN2 managing_VVG people_NN ?_? 24_MC )_) Is_VBZ there_EX anything_PN1 you_PPY would_VM change_VVI ?_? 
</s>
<s>
UNIVERSITY_NN1 OF_IO EDINBURGH_NP1 ,_, DEPARTMENT_NN1 OF_IO COMPUTER_NN1 SCIENCE_NN1 COMPUTER_NN1 SCIENCE_NN1 2_MC Review_NN1 and_CC Comparison_NN1 of_IO CISC_NP1 and_CC RISC_NP1 Architecture_NN1 in_II Computer_NN1 Design_NN1 KIERAN_NP1 LEE_NP1 TUTORS_NN2 NAME_VV0 :_: TIM_NP1 HOPKINS_NP1 31st_MD April_NPM1 1990_MC During_II recent_JJ years_NNT2 there_EX has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 growing_JJ debate_NN1 over_II the_AT merits_NN2 of_IO the_AT two_MC principle_NN1 architectures_NN2 for_IF computer_NN1 design_NN1 ,_, CISCs_NN2 (_( complex_JJ instruction_NN1 set_NN1 computers_NN2 )_) and_CC RISCs_NP2 (_( reduced_JJ instruction_NN1 set_NN1 computers_NN2 )_) ._. 
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<s>
CISCs_NN2 were_VBDR first_MD introduced_VVN in_II 1963_MC by_II IBM_NP1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO standardise_VVI the_AT instruction_NN1 set_VVN for_IF their_APPGE series_NN of_IO computers_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Before_CS this_DD1 point_NN1 ,_, whenever_RRQV IBM_NP1 had_VHD developed_VVN a_AT1 new_JJ computer_NN1 it_PPH1 used_VVD a_AT1 completely_RR different_JJ architecture_NN1 from_II previous_JJ models_NN2 and_CC consequently_RR existing_JJ software_NN1 and_CC hardware_NN1 were_VBDR discarded_VVN ._. 
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<s>
IBM_NP1 ,_, therefore_RR ,_, developed_VVD a_AT1 standard_JJ instruction_NN1 set_VVD that_CST would_VM allow_VVI the_AT development_NN1 of_IO faster_JJR ,_, more_RGR complex_JJ computers_NN2 without_IW major_JJ changes_NN2 to_II the_AT computer_NN1 's_GE basic_JJ architecture_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 allowed_VVD a_AT1 large_JJ amount_NN1 of_IO compatibility_NN1 between_II software_NN1 and_CC peripherals_NN2 of_IO the_AT existing_JJ and_CC newly_RR developed_VVD IBM_NP1 machines_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT RISC_NP1 ,_, though_CS first_MD developed_VVN under_II the_AT name_NN1 801_MC ,_, was_VBDZ also_RR pioneered_VVN by_II IBM_NP1 in_II 1975_MC ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 particular_JJ model_NN1 was_VBDZ never_RR sold_VVN commercially_RR ,_, but_CCB influenced_VVD Berkeley_NP1 University_NN1 's_GE RISC_NP1 I_ZZ1 and_CC II_MC projects_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
RISC_NP1 I_PPIS1 was_VBDZ developed_VVN as_II the_AT university_NN1 believed_VVD it_PPH1 was_VBDZ feasible_JJ to_TO build_VVI a_AT1 single_JJ chip_NN1 computer_NN1 faster_RRR than_CSN the_AT Digital_JJ Electronics_NN1 Corporation_NN1 's_VBZ VAX-11/780_FU ,_, a_AT1 CISC_NN1 design_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
As_CSA there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 tendency_NN1 to_TO increase_VVI the_AT complexity_NN1 of_IO CISCs_NN2 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO upgrade_VVI existing_JJ products_NN2 ,_, resulting_VVG in_II increased_JJ design_NN1 time_NNT1 ,_, increased_JJ design_NN1 errors_NN2 ,_, and_CC inconsistent_JJ implementations_NN2 the_AT university_NN1 believed_VVD that_CST a_AT1 simpler_JJR RISC_NP1 could_VM be_VBI a_AT1 cheaper_JJR alternative_NN1 in_II the_AT modern_JJ world_NN1 where_CS high-level_JJ languages_NN2 predominate_VV0 and_CC there_EX is_VBZ little_DA1 need_NN1 for_IF complex_JJ instructions_NN2 for_IF writing_VVG assembly_NN1 code_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT RISC_NP1 hypothesis_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST by_II reducing_VVG the_AT instruction_NN1 set_VVD one_PN1 can_VM design_VVI an_AT1 architecture_NN1 which_DDQ reduces_VVZ the_AT design_NN1 time_NNT1 ,_, number_NN1 of_IO design_NN1 errors_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT time_NNT1 for_IF individual_JJ instructions_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT VAX_NN1 11/780_MF ,_, hereafter_RT referred_VVN to_II as_CSA VAX_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ the_AT Virtual_JJ Address_NN1 Extension_NN1 of_IO the_AT DEC_NP1 PDP-11_MC architecture_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT principal_NN1 behind_II the_AT design_NN1 of_IO VAX_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO be_VBI able_JK to_TO upgrade_VVI PDP-11_MC architecture_NN1 ,_, by_II preserving_VVG the_AT existing_JJ instruction_NN1 formats_NN2 and_CC instruction_NN1 set_NN1 and_CC fitting_VVG the_AT virtual_JJ address_NN1 extension_NN1 around_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 principal_NN1 ,_, however_RRQV it_PPH1 was_VBDZ discovered_VVN ,_, was_VBDZ overly_RR compromised_VVN in_II the_AT areas_NN2 of_IO efficiency_NN1 ,_, functionality_NN1 ,_, and_CC programming_VVG ease_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 ,_, the_AT constraint_NN1 of_IO the_AT PDP-11_MC instruction_NN1 format_NN1 was_VBDZ dropped_VVN in_II the_AT main_JJ or_CC &bquo;_" native_JJ &equo;_" mode_NN1 of_IO the_AT VAX_NN1 ,_, but_CCB a_AT1 &bquo;_" compatibility_NN1 &equo;_" mode_NN1 was_VBDZ introduced_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO run_VVI existing_JJ PDP-11_MC programs_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 way_NN1 ,_, DEC_NP1 were_VBDR able_JK to_TO maintain_VVI investment_NN1 in_II PDP-11_MC software_NN1 by_II those_DD2 who_PNQS were_VBDR not_XX prepared_VVN to_TO upgrade_VVI to_II VAX_NN1 immediately_RR ._. 
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<s>
Also_RR ,_, in_II VAX_NN1 's_GE native_JJ mode_NN1 data_NN types_NN2 and_CC formats_NN2 are_VBR identical_JJ to_II those_DD2 on_II the_AT PDP-11_MC and_CC ,_, although_CS extended_VVN ,_, the_AT instruction_NN1 set_NN1 and_CC addressing_VVG modes_NN2 are_VBR very_RG close_JJ to_II those_DD2 on_II the_AT PDP-11_MC ._. 
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<s>
Two_MC main_JJ criteria_NN2 were_VBDR used_VVN when_CS designing_VVG the_AT VAX_NN1 instruction_NN1 format_NN1 ;_; all_DB instructions_NN2 should_VM have_VHI the_AT natural_JJ number_NN1 of_IO operands_NN2 and_CC all_DB operands_NN2 should_VM have_VHI the_AT same_DA generality_NN1 in_II specification_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 lead_NN1 to_II a_AT1 highly_RR variable_JJ instruction_NN1 form_NN1 whereby_RRQ an_AT1 instruction_NN1 consists_VVZ of_IO a_AT1 one_MC1 or_CC two_MC byte_NNU opcodes_NN2 followed_VVN by_II a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO operands_NN2 specific_JJ to_II that_DD1 opcode_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
VAX_NN1 ,_, like_II other_JJ CISCs_NN2 ,_, also_RR has_VHZ a_AT1 series_NN of_IO addressing_VVG modes_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
These_DD2 addressing_VVG modes_NN2 are_VBR a_AT1 superset_NN1 of_IO the_AT PDP-11_MC addressing_VVG modes_NN2 with_IW one_MC1 exception_NN1 ,_, the_AT PDP-11_MC addressing_VVG mode_NN1 auto-decrement_NN1 deferred_VVD was_VBDZ omitted_VVN from_II VAX_NN1 as_CSA it_PPH1 was_VBDZ rarely_RR used_VVN ._. 
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<s>
These_DD2 addressing_VVG modes_NN2 allow_VV0 the_AT programmer_NN1 to_TO carry_VVI out_RP memory_NN1 addressing_VVG tasks_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 auto-incrementing_VVG of_IO auto-decrementing_VVG an_AT1 array_NN1 index_NN1 after_CS ,_, or_CC before_RT ,_, carrying_VVG out_RP an_AT1 operation_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
The_AT VAX_NN1 has_VHZ a_AT1 vast_JJ ,_, complex_JJ instruction_NN1 set_VVD consisting_VVG of_IO 243_MC instructions_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Although_CS many_DA2 of_IO these_DD2 instructions_NN2 are_VBR specified_VVN and_CC as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 rarely_RR used_VVN ,_, the_AT instruction_NN1 set_NN1 reduces_VVZ the_AT size_NN1 of_IO machine_NN1 code_NN1 software_NN1 by_II reducing_VVG memory_NN1 cost_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT VAX_NN1 system_NN1 as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 consists_VVZ of_IO a_AT1 central_JJ processing_NN1 unit_NN1 (_( CPU_NN1 )_) ,_, the_AT console_NN1 subsystem_NN1 ,_, the_AT memory_NN1 subsystem_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT I/O_NN1 subsystem_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT CPU_NN1 ,_, memory_NN1 ,_, and_CC I/O_NN1 subsystems_NN2 are_VBR joined_VVN by_II the_AT Synchronous_JJ Backplane_NN1 Interconnect_NN1 (_( SBI_NP1 )_) ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT 8-byte_JJ instruction_NN1 buffer_NN1 in_II the_AT CPU_NN1 decomposes_VVZ the_AT highly_RR variable_JJ instruction_NN1 format_NN1 into_II its_APPGE basic_JJ components_NN2 and_CC constantly_RR fetches_VVZ ahead_RL to_TO reduce_VVI delays_NN2 in_II obtaining_VVG the_AT instruction_NN1 components_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
When_CS originally_RR designed_VVN ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ decided_VVN that_CST the_AT RISC_NP1 I_PPIS1 should_VM execute_VVI one_MC1 instruction_NN1 per_II cycle_NN1 ,_, all_DB instructions_NN2 should_VM be_VBI the_AT same_DA size_NN1 ,_, only_JJ load_NN1 and_CC store_NN1 instructions_NN2 would_VM access_VVI memory_NN1 ,_, the_AT rest_NN1 would_VM operate_VVI between_II registers_NN2 ,_, and_CC that_CST RISC_NP1 I_PPIS1 would_VM be_VBI designed_VVN specifically_RR with_IW high-level_JJ languages_NN2 in_II mind_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT RISC_NP1 I_MC1 instruction_NN1 set_NN1 contains_VVZ a_AT1 few_DA2 simple_JJ operations_NN2 which_DDQ operate_VV0 on_II registers_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Instructions_NN2 ,_, data_NN ,_, addresses_NN2 ,_, and_CC registers_NN2 ,_, are_VBR all_DB 32_MC bits_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Instructions_NN2 fall_VV0 into_II four_MC categories_NN2 :_: arithmetic-logical_JJ ,_, memory_NN1 access_NN1 ,_, branch_NN1 ,_, and_CC miscellaneous_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT execution_NN1 time_NNT1 of_IO a_AT1 RISC_NP1 cycle_NN1 is_VBZ given_VVN by_II the_AT time_NNT1 it_PPH1 takes_VVZ to_TO read_VVI a_AT1 register_NN1 ,_, perform_VV0 an_AT1 ALU_NN1 operation_NN1 ,_, and_CC store_VV0 the_AT result_NN1 back_RP into_II a_AT1 register_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Register_VV0 0_MC ,_, which_DDQ always_RR contains_VVZ zero_MC ,_, allows_VVZ the_AT synthesis_NN1 of_IO various_JJ VAX_NN1 operations_NN2 and_CC addressing_VVG modes_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Load_VV0 and_CC store_NN1 instructions_NN2 move_VV0 data_NN between_II registers_NN2 and_CC memory_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 instructions_NN2 use_VV0 two_MC CPU_NN1 cycles_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX are_VBR eight_MC variations_NN2 of_IO memory_NN1 access_NN1 instructions_NN2 to_TO accommodate_VVI sign-extended_NN1 ,_, zero-extended_NN1 ,_, and_CC 32-bit_NN1 data_NN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Branch_NN1 instructions_NN2 include_VV0 call/return_NN1 ,_, conditional_NN1 ,_, and_CC unconditional_JJ jumps_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT conditional_JJ instructions_NN2 are_VBR the_AT standard_JJ set_NN1 used_VVN in_II the_AT VAX_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX are_VBR a_AT1 total_NN1 of_IO 26_MC simple_JJ instructions_NN2 in_II RISC_NP1 as_CSA compared_VVN with_IW the_AT 243_MC in_II the_AT VAX_NN1 complex_JJ instruction_NN1 set_NN1 and_CC there_EX are_VBR no_RR addressing_VVG modes_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
This_DD1 allows_VVZ for_IF much_RR quicker_JJR execution_NN1 of_IO instructions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO provide_VVI effective_JJ compiler_NN1 generate_VV0 code_NN1 from_II high_JJ level_JJ languages_NN2 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ decided_VVN that_DD1 VAX_NN1 should_VM have_VHI a_AT1 very_RG regular_JJ and_CC consistent_JJ treatment_NN1 of_IO operators_NN2 ,_, avoid_VV0 instructions_NN2 unlikely_JJ to_TO be_VBI generated_VVN by_II a_AT1 compiler_NN1 ,_, include_VV0 several_DA2 forms_NN2 of_IO common_JJ operators_NN2 ,_, and_CC replace_VV0 common_JJ instruction_NN1 sequences_NN2 with_IW single_JJ instructions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT effect_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN as_II the_AT compiled_JJ code_NN1 for_IF VAX_NN1 is_VBZ typically_RR smaller_JJR than_CSN PDP-11_MC code_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Also_RR ,_, from_II the_AT set_NN1 of_IO instructions_NN2 about_RG 75_MC percent_NNU are_VBR generated_VVN by_II the_AT VAX_NN1 Fortran_NP1 compiler_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
RISC_NP1 I_PPIS1 was_VBDZ designed_VVN with_IW the_AT intention_NN1 to_TO always_RR use_VVI high-level_JJ languages_NN2 as_CSA these_DD2 are_VBR the_AT languages_NN2 in_II greatest_JJT commercial_JJ use_NN1 today_RT ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 does_VDZ not_XX matter_VVI whether_CSW a_AT1 high-level_JJ language_NN1 system_NN1 is_VBZ implemented_VVN mostly_RR be_VBI hardware_NN1 or_CC mostly_RR by_II software_NN1 ,_, provided_CS the_AT system_NN1 hides_VVZ any_DD lower_JJR levels_NN2 from_II the_AT programmer_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Given_VVN the_AT limited_JJ number_NN1 of_IO transistors_NN2 that_CST can_VM be_VBI integrated_VVN into_II a_AT1 single_JJ chip_NN1 computer_NN1 ,_, the_AT RISC_NP1 high-level_JJ language_NN1 is_VBZ implemented_VVN mainly_RR using_VVG software_NN1 ,_, with_IW hardware_NN1 support_NN1 for_IF only_RR the_AT most_RRT time_VV0 consuming_VVG events_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 the_AT passing_NN1 of_IO parameters_NN2 in_II procedure_NN1 calls_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Program_NN1 data_NN shows_VVZ that_CST the_AT procedure_NN1 call/return_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT most_RGT time-consuming_JJ operation_NN1 in_II typical_JJ high-level_JJ language_NN1 programs_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT statistics_NN on_II operands_NN2 emphasises_VVZ the_AT importance_NN1 of_IO local_JJ variables_NN2 and_CC constants_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
RISC_NP1 I_ZZ1 attempts_VVZ to_TO make_VVI each_DD1 of_IO these_DD2 constructs_NN2 efficient_JJ ,_, while_CS implementing_VVG the_AT less_RGR frequent_JJ operations_NN2 with_IW subroutines_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Potentially_RR ,_, RISC_NP1 programs_NN2 may_VM have_VHI an_AT1 even_RR larger_JJR number_NN1 of_IO calls_NN2 since_CS the_AT complex_JJ instructions_NN2 found_VVN in_II CISCs_NN2 are_VBR subroutines_NN2 in_II RISC_NP1 I._NP1 Thus_RR the_AT procedure_NN1 call_NN1 must_VM be_VBI as_RG short_JJ as_CSA possible_JJ ,_, perhaps_RR only_RR a_AT1 few_DA2 jumps_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT use_NN1 of_IO procedure_NN1 involves_VVZ two_MC groups_NN2 of_IO time-consuming_JJ operations_NN2 :_: saving_NN1 or_CC restoring_JJ registers_NN2 on_II each_DD1 call_NN1 or_CC return_NN1 and_CC passing_JJ parameters_NN2 and_CC results_NN2 to_II and_CC from_II the_AT procedure_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Measurements_NN2 on_II high-level_JJ language_NN1 programs_NN2 suggest_VV0 that_CST local_JJ scalars_NN2 are_VBR the_AT most_RGT frequent_JJ operands_NN2 ,_, so_CS RISC_NP1 supports_VVZ the_AT allocation_NN1 of_IO locals_NN2 in_II registers_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Microprocessors_NN2 keep_VV0 multiple_JJ banks_NN2 of_IO registers_NN2 on_II the_AT chip_NN1 to_TO avoid_VVI register_NN1 saving_NN1 and_CC restoring_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR each_DD1 procedure_NN1 call_NN1 results_NN2 in_II a_AT1 new_JJ set_NN1 of_IO registers_NN2 allocated_VVN for_IF use_NN1 by_II that_DD1 new_JJ procedure_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT return_NN1 just_RR alters_VVZ a_AT1 pointer_NN1 which_DDQ restores_VVZ the_AT old_JJ set_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Some_DD of_IO these_DD2 registers_NN2 are_VBR not_XX saved_VVN or_CC restored_VVN on_II each_DD1 procedure_NN1 call_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 registers_NN2 are_VBR called_VVN &bquo;_" global_JJ &equo;_" registers_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO allow_VVI parameters_NN2 to_TO be_VBI passed_VVN in_II registers_NN2 ,_, the_AT set_NN1 of_IO window_NN1 registers_NN2 is_VBZ broken_VVN into_II three_MC parts_NN2 :_: high_JJ ,_, local_JJ ,_, and_CC low_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT high_JJ registers_NN2 contain_VV0 parameters_NN2 passed_VVN from_II above_RL the_AT current_JJ procedure_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT local_JJ registers_NN2 are_VBR used_VVN for_IF local_JJ scalar_JJ storage_NN1 as_CSA described_VVN ,_, and_CC the_AT low_JJ registers_NN2 are_VBR used_VVN for_IF local_JJ storage_NN1 and_CC parameters_NN2 to_II the_AT procedure_NN1 &bquo;_" below_II &equo;_" the_AT current_JJ procedure_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
On_II each_DD1 call_NN1 a_AT1 new_JJ set_NN1 of_IO window_NN1 registers_NN2 is_VBZ allocated_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT low_JJ registers_NN2 of_IO the_AT caller_NN1 become_VV0 the_AT high_JJ registers_NN2 of_IO the_AT callee_NN1 ,_, by_II overlapping_VVG the_AT registers_NN2 of_IO the_AT calling_JJ frame_NN1 with_IW the_AT high_JJ registers_NN2 of_IO the_AT called_JJ frame_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ an_AT1 important_JJ aspect_NN1 of_IO the_AT hardware_NN1 as_CSA it_PPH1 is_VBZ one_MC1 of_IO the_AT few_DA2 ways_NN2 in_II which_DDQ the_AT hardware_NN1 of_IO the_AT RISC_NP1 utilises_VVZ the_AT instruction_NN1 set_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Performance_NN1 is_VBZ increased_VVN by_II prefetching_VVG the_AT next_MD instruction_NN1 during_II the_AT execution_NN1 of_IO the_AT current_JJ instruction_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 introduces_VVZ difficulties_NN2 with_IW branch_NN1 instructions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 was_VBDZ solved_VVN by_II redefining_VVG jumps_VVZ so_CS21 that_CS22 they_PPHS2 do_VD0 not_XX take_VVI effect_NN1 until_CS after_CS the_AT following_JJ instruction_NN1 ;_; this_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 delayed_JJ jump_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT machine_NN1 language_NN1 code_NN1 is_VBZ suitable_JJ arranged_JJ so_CS21 that_CS22 the_AT desired_JJ results_NN2 are_VBR obtained_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_CSA this_DD1 only_RR affects_VVZ the_AT machine_NN1 code_NN1 ,_, the_AT programmer_NN1 of_IO the_AT high-level_JJ language_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX affected_VVN by_II this_DD1 and_CC the_AT burden_NN1 falls_VVZ solely_RR in_II the_AT hands_NN2 of_IO the_AT programmers_NN2 of_IO the_AT compiler_NN1 ,_, optimiser_NN1 ,_, and_CC debugger_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Results_NN2 showed_VVD that_DD1 window_NN1 registers_NN2 are_VBR effective_JJ in_II reducing_VVG the_AT cost_NN1 of_IO using_VVG procedures_NN2 and_CC off-chip_JJ memory_NN1 accesses_VVZ are_VBR reduced_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Tests_NN2 using_VVG C_ZZ1 programs_NN2 show_VV0 that_CST less_DAR than_CSN 20_MC percent_NNU of_IO instructions_NN2 are_VBR loads_NN2 and_CC stores_NN2 ,_, while_CS more_DAR than_CSN 80_MC percent_NNU are_VBR register-to-register_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 shows_VVZ RISC_NP1 successfully_RR changes_VVZ the_AT allocation_NN1 of_IO variables_NN2 from_II memory_NN1 into_II registers_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 also_RR indicates_VVZ that_CST RISC_NP1 requires_VVZ a_AT1 lower_JJR number_NN1 of_IO the_AT slower_JJR off-chip_JJ memory_NN1 accesses_VVZ and_CC that_DD1 complex_NN1 addressing_VVG modes_NN2 are_VBR not_XX necessary_JJ to_TO obtain_VVI an_AT1 effective_JJ machine_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Tests_NN2 comparing_VVG the_AT RISC_NP1 with_IW the_AT VAX_NN1 using_VVG similar_JJ C_ZZ1 compilers_NN2 show_VV0 that_CST on_II average_JJ RISC_NP1 uses_VVZ only_RR two-thirds_MF more_DAR instructions_NN2 and_CC RISC_NP1 programs_NN2 were_VBDR only_RR about_RG 50_MC percent_NNU larger_JJR even_CS21 though_CS22 size_NN1 optimisation_NN1 was_VBDZ virtually_RR ignored_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Dynamic_JJ results_NN2 were_VBDR tested_VVN using_VVG Forest_NN1 Baskett_NP1 's_GE &bquo;_" puzzle_NN1 &equo;_" ,_, which_DDQ features_VVZ very_RG few_DA2 procedure_NN1 calls_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 deep_JJ call_NN1 stack_NN1 (_( 20_MC nested_JJ procedure_NN1 calls_VVZ )_) ,_, and_CC a_AT1 relatively_RR large_JJ number_NN1 of_IO loops_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 results_NN2 showed_VVD that_CST it_PPH1 made_VVD no_AT difference_NN1 to_II RISC_NP1 whether_CSW register_NN1 variables_NN2 (_( hints_VVZ that_CST variables_NN2 will_VM be_VBI used_VVN frequently_RR and_CC should_VM be_VBI kept_VVN in_II a_AT1 register_NN1 )_) were_VBDR declared_VVN or_CC not_XX ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ because_CS the_AT architecture_NN1 makes_VVZ it_PPH1 relatively_RR simple_JJ for_IF a_AT1 compiler_NN1 to_TO allocate_VVI local_JJ scalars_NN2 in_II registers_NN2 ,_, so_CS there_EX is_VBZ no_AT need_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 language_NN1 to_TO give_VVI hints_NN2 telling_VVG which_DDQ should_VM be_VBI used_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
RISC_NP1 I_PPIS1 was_VBDZ successful_JJ in_II reducing_VVG the_AT number_NN1 of_IO data_NN accesses_VVZ substantially_RR in_II all_DB programs_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
RISCs_NP2 are_VBR reliable_JJ and_CC free_JJ from_II design_NN1 errors_NN2 ,_, whereas_CS with_IW increasing_JJ complexity_NN1 design_NN1 errors_NN2 are_VBR becoming_VVG more_RRR and_CC more_RGR frequent_JJ among_II CISCs_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
RISCs_NP2 also_RR have_VH0 fewer_DAR transistors_NN2 on_II a_AT1 chip_NN1 than_CSN CISCs_NN2 making_VVG RISCs_NP2 cheaper_JJR to_TO produce_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT advantage_NN1 of_IO CISCs_NP2 over_II RISCs_NP2 ,_, however_RR ,_, is_VBZ the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO transfer_VVI software_NN1 from_II one_MC1 machine_NN1 to_II a_AT1 more_RGR complex_JJ ,_, faster_JJR model_NN1 as_CSA most_DAT manufacturers_NN2 provide_VV0 customers_NN2 with_IW object_NN1 code_NN1 and_CC not_XX the_AT source_NN1 code_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_REX21 example_REX22 compiled_JJ executable_JJ programs_NN2 for_IF the_AT 8-bit_NN1 Intel_NP1 8088_MC are_VBR also_RR executable_JJ on_II the_AT companies_NN2 32-bit_NN1 80386_MC machines_NN2 ,_, whereas_CS the_AT CISC_NN1 Sun_NN1 3_MC is_VBZ not_XX compatible_JJ with_IW the_AT RISC_NP1 Sun_NN1 4_MC machine_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Given_VVN the_AT increasing_JJ chip_NN1 density_NN1 necessary_JJ for_IF more_RGR complex_JJ CISC_NN1 designs_NN2 ,_, resulting_VVG in_II increasing_JJ chip_NN1 faults_NN2 and_CC greater_JJR cost_NN1 RISC_NP1 will_VM be_VBI a_AT1 major_JJ challenger_NN1 to_II the_AT CISC_NN1 in_II the_AT future_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT main_JJ reason_NN1 that_CST CISCs_NN2 are_VBR still_RR in_II more_DAR use_NN1 today_RT than_CSN CISCs_NN2 are_VBR that_RG commonly_RR used_JJ commercial_JJ operating_NN1 systems_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 MS-DOS_NN1 for_IF the_AT IBM_NP1 PC_NN1 can_VM not_XX be_VBI emulated_VVN well_RR on_II a_AT1 RISC_NP1 computer_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 requires_VVZ extra_JJ software_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT IBM_NP1 XT_NP1 emulator_NN1 for_IF the_AT Acorn_NN1 Archimedes_NP1 with_IW the_AT ARM_NN1 microprocessor_NN1 using_VVG RISC_NP1 architecture_NN1 (_( based_VVN on_II the_AT original_JJ RISC_NP1 I_PPIS1 design_VV0 )_) runs_VVZ slower_JJR than_CSN the_AT Intel_NP1 8088_MC ,_, the_AT slowest_JJT of_IO the_AT PC_NN1 processors_NN2 ,_, under_II the_AT MS-DOS_NN1 operating_VVG system.Also_NNU as_II RISCs_NP2 are_VBR designed_VVN with_IW high-level_JJ languages_NN2 in_II mind_NN1 ,_, designing_VVG in_II assembly_NN1 is_VBZ very_RG tedious_JJ unlike_JJ assembly_NN1 programming_VVG with_IW CISCs_NN2 where_CS there_EX are_VBR instructions_NN2 for_IF complex_JJ tasks_NN2 and_CC so_RR programming_VVG is_VBZ relatively_RR simple_JJ and_CC ,_, as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 ,_, less_RGR time-consuming_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, assembly_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX widely_RR used_VVN at_RR21 present_RR22 and_CC as_RG more_DAR companies_NN2 develop_VV0 RISCs_NP2 it_PPH1 is_VBZ likely_JJ that_CST this_DD1 architecture_NN1 will_VM dominate_VVI the_AT CISC_NN1 design_NN1 in_II the_AT future_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
&bquo;_" If_CS active_JJ citizenship_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO be_VBI established_VVN in_II the_AT public_JJ domain_NN1 then_RT the_AT institutions_NN2 of_IO participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 must_VM be_VBI strengthened_VVN ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
Critically_RR assess_VV0 this_DD1 view_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Political_JJ Theory_NN1 Extended_VVD Essay_NN1 KIERAN_NP1 LEE_NP1 Tutor_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; Dr_NNB Paul_NP1 Smart_NP1 April_NPM1 26th_MD ,_, 1991_MC The_AT citizens_NN2 of_IO most_DAT countries_NN2 like_VV0 to_TO believe_VVI they_PPHS2 live_VV0 in_II a_AT1 democracy_NN1 ,_, i.e._REX the_AT state_NN1 being_VBG governed_VVN by_II all_DB the_AT people_NN ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, how_RRQ active_JJ are_VBR citizens_NN2 today_RT and_CC is_VBZ the_AT system_NN1 organised_VVN in_II such_DA a_AT1 way_NN1 as_CSA to_TO foster_VVI ,_, or_CC stifle_VV0 their_APPGE participation_NN1 ?_? 
</s>
<s>
Could_VM it_PPH1 not_XX be_VBI said_VVN the_AT overwhelming_JJ factor_NN1 of_IO modern_JJ life_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT apathy_NN1 amongst_II the_AT majority_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE members_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ should_VM engender_VVI concern_NN1 regarding_II the_AT way_NN1 government_NN1 is_VBZ designed_VVN ?_? 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 seems_VVZ to_TO ensure_VVI citizens_NN2 are_VBR pinned_VVN under_II its_APPGE powerful_JJ thumb_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR it_PPH1 could_VM be_VBI alleged_VVN that_CST we_PPIS2 are_VBR all_DB vulnerable_JJ to_II this_DD1 power_NN1 ,_, individuals_NN2 having_VHG little_DA1 control_NN1 over_II their_APPGE lives_NN2 ,_, in_II the_AT shadow_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 powerful_JJ and_CC looming_JJ state_NN1 which_DDQ offers_VVZ them_PPHO2 protection_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 set_NN1 of_IO civil/political_JJ rights_NN2 ,_, the_AT main_JJ being_NN1 to_TO elect_VVI representatives_NN2 in_II31 return_II32 for_II33 their_APPGE acquiescence_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_CSA Keane_NP1 says_VVZ &bquo;_" How_RRQ do_VD0 we_PPIS2 guarantee_VVI the_AT survival_NN1 and_CC future_JJ growth_NN1 of_IO democracy_NN1 &hellip;_... the_AT troubling_JJ paradox_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT growing_JJ respectability_NN1 of_IO democracy_NN1 has_VHZ turned_VVN out_RP to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 disappointing_JJ affair_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; certainly_RR if_CS democracy_NN1 means_VVZ a_AT1 pluralistic_JJ system_NN1 of_IO power_NN1 wherein_RRQ decisions_NN2 of_IO concern_NN1 to_II collectives_NN2 of_IO various_JJ others_NN2 within_II civil_JJ society_NN1 and_CC the_AT state_NN1 are_VBR made_VVN directly_RR or_CC indirectly_RR by_II their_APPGE members_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI true_JJ that_CST democracy_NN1 ,_, though_CS a_AT1 virtuous_JJ and_CC desirable_JJ political_JJ form_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ always_RR under_II threat_NN1 and_CC incomplete_JJ in_II certain_JJ respects_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
But_CCB ,_, how_RRQ incomplete_JJ is_VBZ our_APPGE political_JJ system_NN1 today_RT ;_; does_VDZ it_PPH1 satisfy_VVI or_CC repress_VVI its_APPGE citizens_NN2 ?_? 
</s>
<s>
Liberal_JJ ,_, representative_JJ government_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT accepted_JJ form_NN1 of_IO democracy_NN1 advocated_VVN by_II all_DB liberals_NN2 from_II Locke_NP1 to_II Hayek_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Citizenship_NN1 rights_NN2 were_VBDR developed_VVN along_II21 with_II22 liberal_JJ government_NN1 due_II21 to_II22 modernisation_NN1 and_CC protest_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO obtain_VVI a_AT1 greater_JJR degree_NN1 of_IO participation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
How_RGQ far_RR ,_, therefore_RR ,_, does_VDZ our_APPGE present_JJ system_NN1 of_IO representative_JJ competitive_JJ democracy_NN1 encourage_VV0 active_JJ citizenship_NN1 ?_? 
</s>
<s>
Schumpeter_NP1 advocates_NN2 it_PPH1 and_CC describes_VVZ it_PPH1 as_II being_VBG &bquo;_" that_DD1 institutional_JJ arrangement_NN1 for_IF arriving_VVG at_II political_JJ decisions_NN2 in_II which_DDQ individuals_NN2 acquire_VV0 the_AT power_NN1 to_TO decide_VVI by_II31 means_II32 of_II33 a_AT1 competitive_JJ struggle_NN1 for_IF the_AT people_NN 's_GE vote_NN1 ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ ,_, therefore_RR ,_, a_AT1 &bquo;_" method_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ well-designed_JJ to_TO produce_VVI a_AT1 strong_JJ ,_, authoritative_JJ government_NN1 ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
Leaders_NN2 therefore_RR decide_VV0 on_II31 behalf_II32 of_II33 the_AT people_NN and_CC the_AT system_NN1 helps_VVZ individuals_NN2 to_TO achieve_VVI their_APPGE own_DA goals_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Participation_NN1 and_CC active_JJ citizenship_NN1 therefore_RR have_VH0 a_AT1 limited_JJ role_NN1 due_II21 to_II22 the_AT desire_NN1 to_TO preserve_VVI stability_NN1 and_CC the_AT claims_NN2 that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ unrealistic_JJ to_TO have_VHI citizens_NN2 active_JJ in_II decision-making_NN1 ;_; &bquo;_" the_AT electoral_JJ mass_NN1 is_VBZ incapable_JJ of_IO action_NN1 other_II21 than_II22 stampede_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT people_NN 's_GE role_NN1 in_II the_AT main_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT production_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 government_NN1 to_TO represent_VVI their_APPGE views_NN2 ,_, enforcing_VVG Montesquieu_NP1 's_GE view_NN1 that_CST &bquo;_" political_JJ liberty_NN1 consists_VVZ in_II security_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
If_CS the_AT populace_NN1 are_VBR unhappy_JJ with_IW the_AT actions_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 government_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 can_VM vote_VVI representatives_NN2 out_RP ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT state_NN1 is_VBZ seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 medium_NN1 which_DDQ allows_VVZ individuals_NN2 to_TO pursue_VVI their_APPGE own_DA interests_NN2 ,_, promoting_VVG freedom_NN1 and_CC autonomy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Among_II political_JJ theorists_NN2 it_PPH1 is_VBZ widely_RR accepted_VVN that_CST ,_, to_TO sustain_VVI a_AT1 democracy_NN1 ,_, participation_NN1 and_CC active_JJ citizenship_NN1 should_VM have_VHI only_RR a_AT1 minimal_JJ role_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Any_DD increase_NN1 in_II participation_NN1 would_VM destabilise_VVI the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Several_DA2 authors_NN2 ,_, who_PNQS see_VV0 the_AT failings_NN2 of_IO our_APPGE present_JJ system_NN1 ,_, do_VD0 not_XX wish_VVI to_TO see_VVI an_AT1 extension_NN1 of_IO participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Bobbio_NN1 ,_, like_II Schumpeter_NP1 and_CC Dahl_NP1 ,_, wishes_VVZ to_TO retain_VVI the_AT competitive_JJ model_NN1 of_IO different_JJ parties_NN2 for_IF the_AT peoples_NN2 '_GE vote_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Active_JJ citizenship_NN1 may_VM not_XX be_VBI possible_JJ as_CSA today_RT life_NN1 is_VBZ geared_VVN around_II the_AT individual_NN1 and_CC common_JJ interests_NN2 are_VBR hard_JJ to_TO identify_VVI &mdash;_- ;_; &bquo;_" people_NN are_VBR ill-informed_JJ judges_NN2 of_IO their_APPGE own_DA interests_NN2 therefore_RR representatives_NN2 do_VD0 a_AT1 better_JJR job_NN1 ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 will_VM initiate_VVI more_RGR effective_JJ policies_NN2 than_CSN a_AT1 &bquo;_" badly-informed_JJ populace_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Bobbio_NN1 has_VHZ doubts_NN2 ,_, therefore_RR ,_, as_II21 to_II22 the_AT educative_JJ benefits_NN2 of_IO participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 may_VM not_XX produce_VVI a_AT1 positive_JJ result_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 is_VBZ anxious_JJ that_CST it_PPH1 will_VM increase_VVI conflicts_NN2 between_II groups_NN2 due_II21 to_II22 the_AT strengthening_NN1 of_IO and_CC increase_NN1 of_IO group_NN1 identity_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Instead_RR Bobbio_NP1 wishes_VVZ to_TO extend_VVI democratic_JJ control_NN1 to_II a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO areas_NN2 within_II society_NN1 with_IW strengthened_JJ civil_JJ ,_, political_JJ and_CC social_JJ rights_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 is_VBZ concerned_JJ with_IW the_AT existence_NN1 of_IO invisible_JJ power_NN1 within_II the_AT state_NN1 ,_, creating_VVG a_AT1 barrier_NN1 between_II it_PPH1 and_CC the_AT people_NN ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT need_NN1 to_TO penetrate_VVI this_DD1 curtain_NN1 is_VBZ imperative_JJ ,_, thereby_RR allowing_VVG reform_NN1 so_CS the_AT state_NN1 is_VBZ more_RRR in_II tune_NN1 with_IW the_AT wishes_NN2 of_IO society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Even_CS21 though_CS22 democracy_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 disappointment_NN1 ,_, Bobbio_NP1 still_RR prefers_VVZ the_AT rule_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 to_II the_AT rule_NN1 of_IO men_NN2 as_CSA hailed_VVN by_II participatory_JJ theorists_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Walzer_NN1 calls_VVZ it_PPH1 the_AT &bquo;_" problem_NN1 of_IO citizenship_NN1 &equo;_" and_CC he_PPHS1 expresses_VVZ deep_JJ doubts_NN2 that_CST the_AT ideal_NN1 of_IO participatory_JJ active_JJ citizenship_NN1 can_VM be_VBI realised_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 feels_VVZ we_PPIS2 have_VH0 to_TO live_VVI with_IW what_DDQ we_PPIS2 have_VH0 helped_VVN to_TO create_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
Pluralism_NN1 or_CC membership_NN1 of_IO associations_NN2 ,_, he_PPHS1 suggests_VVZ ,_, provides_VVZ the_AT individual_NN1 with_IW the_AT participation_NN1 lacking_VVG in_II a_AT1 liberal_JJ democracy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Active_JJ citizenship_NN1 ,_, in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ only_RR possible_JJ in_II small_JJ communities_NN2 where_CS there_EX is_VBZ no_AT organisational_JJ complexity_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Perhaps_RR the_AT easier_JJR participation_NN1 becomes_VVZ ,_, the_AT less_RGR effective_JJ its_APPGE efforts_NN2 would_VM be_VBI ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RRQV his_APPGE views_NN2 seem_VV0 split_NN1 &mdash;_- &bquo;_" but_CCB if_CS we_PPIS2 are_VBR not_XX willing_JJ to_TO rule_VVI in_II our_APPGE turn_NN1 ,_, other_JJ men_NN2 will_VM rule_VVI out_II21 of_II22 theirs_PPGE ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 will_VM call_VVI us_PPIO2 citizens_NN2 but_CCB we_PPIS2 will_VM be_VBI something_PN1 less_DAR ,_, perhaps_RR I_PPIS1 should_VM say_VVI they_PPHS2 do_VD0 call_VVI us_PPIO2 citizens_NN2 but_CCB we_PPIS2 are_VBR something_PN1 less_DAR ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
To_II many_DA2 this_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX argument_NN1 ;_; our_APPGE system_NN1 needs_VVZ drastic_JJ revision_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Those_DD2 who_PNQS argue_VV0 for_IF participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 believe_VV0 active_JJ citizenship_NN1 can_VM not_XX be_VBI established_VVN within_II the_AT limitations_NN2 set_VVN by_II the_AT existing_JJ liberal-democratic_JJ framework_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 press_VV0 for_IF much_RR needed_VVN democratic_JJ reforms_NN2 to_TO enable_VVI the_AT citizens_NN2 to_TO participate_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
Without_IW doubt_NN1 ,_, the_AT legacy_NN1 of_IO the_AT competitive_JJ model_NN1 of_IO democracy_NN1 can_VM be_VBI criticised_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Many_DA2 reject_VV0 democracy_NN1 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 party_NN1 competition_NN1 ,_, majority_NN1 rule_NN1 and_CC the_AT rule_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Active_JJ citizenship_NN1 involves_VVZ the_AT participation_NN1 of_IO individuals_NN2 in_II the_AT social_JJ ,_, economic_JJ and_CC political_JJ organisations_NN2 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Our_APPGE present_JJ system_NN1 has_VHZ merely_RR augured_VVN the_AT growth_NN1 of_IO passive_JJ citizenship_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Conservatives_NN2 believe_VV0 that_CST as_CS31 long_CS32 as_CS33 government_NN1 allows_VVZ individuals_NN2 to_II to_TO pursue_VVI their_APPGE own_DA goals_NN2 their_APPGE citizenship_NN1 is_VBZ served_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_II such_DA ,_, they_PPHS2 believe_VV0 active_JJ citizenship_NN1 is_VBZ alive_JJ when_CS looking_VVG at_II voluntary/charitable_JJ work_NN1 and_CC community_NN1 control_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
If_CS active_JJ citizenship_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO be_VBI established_VVN ,_, changes_NN2 are_VBR essential_JJ as_CSA our_APPGE present_JJ system_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX seek_VVI to_TO achieve_VVI it_PPH1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 could_VM be_VBI said_VVN that_CST our_APPGE present_JJ system_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX invite_VVI people_NN to_TO be_VBI active_JJ ;_; does_VDZ not_XX foster_VVI participation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Our_APPGE lives_NN2 are_VBR still_RR controlled_VVN by_II a_AT1 distant_JJ central_JJ government_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ can_VM impose_VVI policies_NN2 on_II the_AT electorate_NN1 and_CC rule_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 when_RRQ nearly_RR 60%_NNU of_IO the_AT electorate_NN1 are_VBR opposed_VVN to_II the_AT party_NN1 in_II government_NN1 and_CC therefore_RR have_VH0 no_AT political_JJ voice_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR ,_, arguments_NN2 for_IF participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 focus_NN1 on_II the_AT inactivity_NN1 of_IO the_AT large_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO the_AT people_NN in_II the_AT political_JJ arena_NN1 today_RT ._. 
</s>
<s>
Held_VVN asks_VVZ why_RRQ &bquo;_" for_IF so_RG many_DA2 people_NN the_AT fact_NN1 something_PN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 recognisably_RR &bquo;_" political_JJ &equo;_" statement_NN1 is_VBZ almost_RR enough_RR to_TO bring_VVI it_PPH1 instantly_RR into_II disrepute_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Finley_NN1 comments_NN2 on_II the_AT indifference_NN1 and_CC ignorance_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 majority_NN1 of_IO the_AT electorate_NN1 in_II Western_JJ democracies_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Public_JJ apathy_NN1 and_CC political_JJ ignorance_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 indisputable_JJ fact_NN1 today_RT ._. 
</s>
<s>
Political_JJ parties_NN2 today_RT are_VBR condemned_VVN for_IF having_VHG little_DA1 or_CC no_AT room_NN1 for_IF meaningful_JJ citizenship_NN1 participation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Citizens_NN2 in_II our_APPGE present_JJ system_NN1 are_VBR limited_VVN to_II the_AT role_NN1 of_IO occasional_JJ voters_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Parties_NN2 are_VBR dominated_VVN by_II specialisation_NN1 ,_, expertise_NN1 ,_, organisation_NN1 ,_, and_CC bureaucracy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Leadership_NN1 ,_, as_CSA Keane_NP1 says_VVZ ,_, &bquo;_" resembles_VVZ a_AT1 blind_JJ and_CC arrogant_JJ monarch_NN1 when_CS it_PPH1 comes_VVZ to_II the_AT real_JJ issues_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ alleged_VVN that_DD1 party_NN1 government_NN1 and_CC politics_NN1 are_VBR inimical_JJ to_II genuine_JJ democracy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Leaders_NN2 decide_VV0 regardless_RR of_IO the_AT vote_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
While_CS elections_NN2 are_VBR crucial_JJ to_II democratic_JJ institutionalism_NN1 ,_, Keane_NP1 states_VVZ that_CST &bquo;_" the_AT mandate_NN1 or_CC representation_NN1 principle_NN1 upon_II which_DDQ all_DB parties_NN2 thrive_VV0 robs_VVZ citizens_NN2 of_IO all_DB significant_JJ responsibilities_NN2 for_IF their_APPGE judgements_NN2 and_CC actions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II the_AT act_NN1 of_IO voting_NN1 ,_, meaningful_JJ citizenship_NN1 drops_VVZ with_IW the_AT marked_JJ paper_NN1 into_II the_AT ballot_NN1 box_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; both_DB2 disappear_VV0 simultaneously_RR ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR it_PPH1 seems_VVZ hardly_RR sufficient_JJ for_IF people_NN to_TO vote_VVI every_AT1 four_MC or_CC five_MC years_NNT2 at_II a_AT1 time_NNT1 of_IO a_AT1 general_JJ election_NN1 ,_, the_AT brevity_NN1 of_IO the_AT act_NN1 carrying_VVG little_JJ weight_NN1 or_CC influence_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 could_VM be_VBI classed_VVN as_CSA &bquo;_" periodic_JJ citizenship_NN1 &equo;_" whereby_RRQ the_AT accountability_NN1 of_IO the_AT public_NN1 ,_, through_II the_AT electoral_JJ process_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ reduced_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX is_VBZ no_AT way_NN1 of_IO knowing_VVG ,_, even_RR seeking_VVG to_TO find_VVI out_RP what_DDQ people_NN want_VV0 ,_, even_CS21 when_CS22 they_PPHS2 are_VBR in_II agreement_NN1 with_IW the_AT government_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 are_VBR ,_, in_II a_AT1 sense_NN1 ,_, controlled_VVN and_CC the_AT system_NN1 is_VBZ &bquo;_" incomplete_JJ for_IF fulfilling_VVG citizenship_NN1 in_II any_DD period_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT views_NN2 of_IO the_AT electorate_NN1 can_VM be_VBI registered_VVN only_RR very_RG occasionally_RR ,_, if_CS at_RR21 all_RR22 ,_, and_CC in_II the_AT most_RGT general_JJ terms_NN2 the_AT side_NN1 of_IO the_AT political_JJ spectrum_NN1 they_PPHS2 fall_VV0 on_RP is_VBZ identified_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
&bquo;_" The_AT election_NN1 and_CC direct_JJ involvement_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 small_JJ number_NN1 of_IO representatives_NN2 does_VDZ not_XX give_VVI adequate_JJ opportunity_NN1 for_IF participation_NN1 and_CC expression_NN1 of_IO public_JJ views_NN2 which_DDQ can_VM strengthen_VVI democracy_NN1 ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
Pateman_NN1 also_RR says_VVZ the_AT only_JJ democratic_JJ element_NN1 in_II liberal_JJ democracies_NN2 is_VBZ the_AT vote_NN1 and_CC then_RT when_CS representatives_NN2 make_VV0 political_JJ decisions_NN2 on_II their_APPGE behalf_NN1 the_AT electorate_NN1 renounce_VV0 power_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Liberal_JJ democratic_JJ voting_NN1 ,_, therefore_RR ,_, is_VBZ a_AT1 &bquo;_" series_NN of_IO renewals_NN2 to_TO obey_VVI &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Individuals_NN2 can_VM not_XX choose_VVI what_DDQ they_PPHS2 vote_VV0 on_RP or_CC when_CS they_PPHS2 vote_VV0 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT &bquo;_" only_JJ means_NN of_IO modifying_VVG what_DDQ they_PPHS2 have_VH0 done_VDN is_VBZ to_TO perform_VVI the_AT same_DA action_NN1 when_CS next_MD invited_VVN to_TO do_VDI so_RR &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Many_DA2 feel_VV0 political_JJ participation_NN1 must_VM be_VBI made_VVN worthwhile_JJ before_II active_JJ citizenship_NN1 can_VM occur_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_BCL21 order_BCL22 for_IF individuals_NN2 to_TO be_VBI interested_JJ in_II their_APPGE community_NN1 they_PPHS2 have_VH0 to_TO feel_VVI they_PPHS2 have_VH0 a_AT1 say_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT electorate_NN1 are_VBR merely_RR &bquo;_" political_JJ actors_NN2 &equo;_" &mdash;_- ;_; &bquo;_" at_II election_NN1 times_NNT2 ,_, individuals_NN2 put_VVN on_II what_DDQ Marx_NP1 called_VVD their_APPGE &bquo;_" political_JJ lion_NN1 skin'_NN1 of_IO citizenship_NN1 but_CCB underneath_RL they_PPHS2 act_VV0 as_CSA before_RT &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Voting_NN1 ,_, in_II itself_PPX1 ,_, is_VBZ not_XX sufficient_JJ to_TO advance_VVI interests_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II some_DD countries_NN2 a_AT1 large_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO the_AT electorate_NN1 do_VD0 not_XX even_RR exercise_VVI the_AT right_NN1 to_TO vote_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ accompanied_VVN by_II low_JJ rates_NN2 of_IO political_JJ participation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
These_DD2 are_VBR largely_RR women_NN2 and_CC lower_JJR socio-economic_JJ groups_NN2 who_PNQS feel_VV0 most_RRT excluded_VVN from_II the_AT system_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
So_RR is_VBZ this_DD1 apathy_NN1 and_CC lack_NN1 of_IO interest_NN1 not_XX the_AT result_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 political_JJ system_NN1 which_DDQ dissuades_VVZ people_NN from_II taking_VVG an_AT1 active_JJ role_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Exclusion_NN1 in_II many_DA2 ways_NN2 facilitates_VVZ their_APPGE apathy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT Left_NN1 believes_VVZ that_CST ,_, generally_RR ,_, given_VVN the_AT concentrated_JJ forces_NN2 arrayed_VVN against_II them_PPHO2 ,_, people_NN perhaps_RR can_VM not_XX get_VVI into_II &bquo;_" real_JJ politics_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Even_RR membership_NN1 of_IO political_JJ parties_NN2 is_VBZ declining_VVG ._. 
</s>
<s>
Duncan_NP1 says_VVZ &bquo;_" the_AT brute_NN1 fact_NN1 remains_VVZ that_CST democratic_JJ politics_NN1 can_VM not_XX prevent_VVI the_AT creation_NN1 of_IO remote_JJ ,_, state-entrenched_JJ centres_NN2 of_IO power_NN1 which_DDQ tend_VV0 to_TO promote_VVI general_JJ apathy_NN1 ,_, cynicism_NN1 ,_, and_CC ignorance_NN1 about_II politics_NN1 among_II the_AT masses_NN2 of_IO the_AT people_NN &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 healthy_JJ situation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ argued_VVN democracy_NN1 needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI redefined_VVN in_II function_NN1 and_CC meaning_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Finley_NN1 says_VVZ &bquo;_" the_AT issue_NN1 is_VBZ whether_CSW this_DD1 state_NN1 of_IO affairs_NN2 is_VBZ under_RG ,_, modern_JJ conditions_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 necessary_JJ and_CC desirable_JJ one_PN1 or_CC whether_CSW new_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO popular_JJ participation_NN1 in_II the_AT Athenian_JJ Spirit_NN1 need_NN1 to_TO be_VBI invented_VVN &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Alienation_NN1 within_II the_AT present_JJ system_NN1 has_VHZ led_VVN to_II activity_NN1 outwith_II the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 and_CC to_II the_AT creation_NN1 of_IO social_JJ movements_NN2 through_II the_AT need_NN1 to_TO publicise_VVI grievances_NN2 and_CC uncertainties_NN2 about_II everyday_JJ life_NN1 and_CC to_TO urge_VVI the_AT necessity_NN1 of_IO democratising_VVG life_NN1 in_II these_DD2 areas_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT most_RGT active_JJ expression_NN1 of_IO citizenship_NN1 in_II recent_JJ years_NNT2 outwith_II government_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Decisions_NN2 therefore_RR can_VM be_VBI influenced_VVN by_II these_DD2 active_JJ movements_NN2 ,_, e.g._REX greens_NN2 ,_, peace_NN1 ,_, and_CC feminists_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ highlight_VV0 issues_NN2 and_CC capture_VV0 the_AT public_NN1 's_GE attention_NN1 and_CC thus_RR bring_VV0 pressure_NN1 to_TO bear_VVI on_II the_AT government_NN1 during_II inter-electoral_JJ periods_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
To_II this_DD1 extent_NN1 active_JJ citizenship_NN1 is_VBZ available_JJ to_II all_DB ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT public_NN1 can_VM join_VVI and_CC campaign_VVI ,_, supporting_VVG beliefs_NN2 and_CC causes_VVZ with_IW the_AT intent_NN1 of_IO influencing_VVG popular_JJ opinion_NN1 and_CC government_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT need_NN1 for_IF these_DD2 movements_NN2 shows_VVZ the_AT ineffectiveness_NN1 and_CC unwillingness_NN1 of_IO the_AT present_JJ system_NN1 to_TO deal_VVI with_IW issues_NN2 central_JJ to_II the_AT voter_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Movements_NN2 have_VH0 accused_VVN existing_JJ parties_NN2 of_IO not_XX reflecting_VVG the_AT true_JJ political_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 ,_, &bquo;_" stocking_VVG the_AT pores_NN2 of_IO civil_JJ society_NN1 and_CC frustrating_JJ and_CC screening_VVG out_RP political_JJ dissent_NN1 &equo;_" ,_, thereby_RR limiting_JJ activity_NN1 in_II the_AT public_JJ domain_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Reactions_NN2 of_IO the_AT government_NN1 to_II green/women_FU 's_VBZ issues_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN superficial_JJ ,_, clearly_RR lacking_VVG and_CC without_IW substance_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
What_DDQ is_VBZ important_JJ to_II a_AT1 large_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO people_NN takes_VVZ second_MD place_NN1 to_II the_AT market_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Civil_JJ disobedience_NN1 to_TO obtain_VVI what_DDQ the_AT voters_NN2 want_VV0 has_VHZ been_VBN used_VVN most_RGT effectively_RR in_II poll_NN1 tax_NN1 demonstrations_NN2 and_CC non-payment_JJ campaigns_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Although_CS this_DD1 was_VBDZ against_II the_AT law_NN1 ,_, the_AT poll_NN1 tax_NN1 was_VBDZ illegitimate_JJ &mdash;_- imposed_VVN from_II above_RL ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II Scotland_NP1 ,_, the_AT electorate_NN1 had_VHD to_TO pay_VVI this_DD1 tax_NN1 for_IF an_AT1 extra_JJ year_NNT1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 truly_RR democratic_JJ government_NN1 would_VM have_VHI realised_VVN the_AT populace_NN1 was_VBDZ against_II the_AT tax_NN1 and_CC abandoned_VVD it_PPH1 immediately_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
Now_RT the_AT tax_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN scrapped_VVN ,_, but_CCB was_VBDZ it_PPH1 due_II21 to_II22 citizenship_NN1 or_CC merely_RR the_AT need_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 new_JJ leader_NN1 to_TO gain_VVI popularity_NN1 ?_? 
</s>
<s>
Despite_II its_APPGE demise_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 still_RR have_VH0 to_TO pay_VVI this_DD1 tax_NN1 for_IF the_AT next_MD two_MC years_NNT2 and_CC can_VM be_VBI subject_II21 to_II22 warrant_NN1 sales_NN or_CC heavy_JJ fines_NN2 for_IF non-payment_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT power_NN1 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 is_VBZ overwhelming_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Undoubtedly_RR ,_, the_AT Conservatives_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN quite_RG content_JJ to_TO increase_VVI state_NN1 domination_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Our_APPGE potential_NN1 to_TO influence_VVI the_AT structure_NN1 ,_, responsibilities_NN2 and_CC policies_NN2 of_IO government_NN1 is_VBZ severely_RR limited_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
We_PPIS2 seem_VV0 to_TO be_VBI passive_JJ in_II the_AT face_NN1 of_IO authority_NN1 ,_, conditioned_VVN to_TO accept_VVI greater_JJR intrusion_NN1 in_II our_APPGE lives_NN2 in_II a_AT1 supposedly_RR free_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
We_PPIS2 experience_VV0 a_AT1 lack_NN1 of_IO power_NN1 ,_, supporting_VVG Rousseau_NP1 's_GE allegation_NN1 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 &bquo;_" tendency_NN1 of_IO all_DB governments_NN2 to_II degenerate_JJ &equo;_" as_II the_AT state_NN1 's_GE freedom_NN1 increases_VVZ while_CS ours_PPGE slips_VVZ away_RL ._. 
</s>
<s>
Citizens_NN2 today_RT increasingly_RR seem_VV0 to_TO believe_VVI what_DDQ they_PPHS2 are_VBR told_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 do_VD0 n't_XX care_VVI about_II extending_VVG rights_NN2 or_CC being_VBG active_JJ as_CSA they_PPHS2 are_VBR more_RGR interested_JJ in_II working_VVG and_CC paying_VVG of_IO debts_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 are_VBR impotent_JJ in_II the_AT face_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 centralised_JJ ,_, powerful_JJ state_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 power_NN1 needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI tackled_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Many_DA2 are_VBR questioning_VVG the_AT threat_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 &pound;400_NNU fine_JJ ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ being_VBG imposed_VVN for_IF failure_NN1 to_TO complete_VVI the_AT 1991_MC census_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
All_DB of_IO the_AT above_JJ need_NN1 to_TO be_VBI tackled_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Active_JJ citizenship_NN1 is_VBZ severely_RR lacking_VVG in_II the_AT public_JJ domain_NN1 today_RT ._. 
</s>
<s>
Many_DA2 look_VV0 to_II those_DD2 classical_JJ theorists_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 J._NP1 S._NP1 Mill_NN1 and_CC Jean-Jacques_NP1 Rousseau_NP1 ,_, who_PNQS argued_VVD for_IF a_AT1 participatory_JJ system_NN1 of_IO democracy_NN1 where_RRQ citizens_NN2 are_VBR sovereign_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_CSA civic_JJ republicanism_NN1 asserts_VVZ ,_, the_AT individual_NN1 can_VM exert_VVI a_AT1 meaningful_JJ existence_NN1 within_II society_NN1 in_II the_AT public_JJ realm_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT situation_NN1 today_RT is_VBZ divorced_VVN from_II what_DDQ Mill/Rousseau_NP1 envisaged_VVD ,_, each_DD1 believing_VVG in_II participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 contained_VVN within_II the_AT ideal_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 &bquo;_" rational_JJ ,_, active_JJ ,_, and_CC informed_VVD democratic_JJ man_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Pateman_NN1 believes_VVZ their_APPGE work_NN1 is_VBZ still_RR valuable_JJ today_RT ._. 
</s>
<s>
Our_APPGE system_NN1 forgets_VVZ Mills_NP1 '_GE comment_NN1 that_CST &bquo;_" the_AT nation_NN1 did_VDD not_XX need_VVI to_TO be_VBI protected_VVN against_II his_APPGE own_DA will_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX was_VBDZ no_AT fear_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE tyrannising_NN1 over_II itself_PPX1 ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 democracy_NN1 should_VM strive_VVI to_TO make_VVI the_AT most_DAT of_IO its_APPGE people_NN ;_; encourage_VV0 active_JJ citizenship_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 should_VM not_XX repress_VVI or_CC propel_VVI the_AT citizenship_NN1 away_II21 from_II22 political_JJ life_NN1 but_CCB be_VBI &bquo;_" informed_VVN by_II an_AT1 entire_JJ people_NN to_II the_AT point_NN1 where_RRQ the_AT intellectual_NN1 ,_, emotional_JJ ,_, and_CC moral_JJ capacities_NN2 have_VH0 reached_VVN their_APPGE full_JJ potential_NN1 and_CC they_PPHS2 are_VBR joined_VVN freely_RR and_CC actively_RR in_II a_AT1 genuine_JJ community_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
To_II Rousseau_NP1 ,_, non-participatory_JJ institutions_NN2 posed_VVD a_AT1 threat_NN1 to_II freedom_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; &bquo;_" man_NN1 is_VBZ born_VVN free_JJ and_CC he_PPHS1 is_VBZ everywhere_RL in_II chains_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Democracy_NN1 should_VM embody_VVI the_AT popular_JJ will_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; &bquo;_" every_AT1 law_NN1 which_DDQ the_AT people_NN has_VHZ not_XX ratified_VVN is_VBZ null_JJ ,_, void_NN1 is_VBZ in_II fact_NN1 not_XX a_AT1 law_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT people_NN of_IO England_NP1 sees_VVZ itself_PPX1 as_CSA free_JJ but_CCB is_VBZ grossly_RR mistaken_VVN ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ free_JJ only_RR during_II the_AT election_NN1 of_IO members_NN2 of_IO parliament_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_CS31 soon_CS32 as_CS33 they_PPHS2 are_VBR elected_VVN ,_, the_AT people_NN is_VBZ enslaved_VVN ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ nothing_PN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 seems_VVZ alarmingly_RR true_JJ today_RT ._. 
</s>
<s>
Over_II the_AT past_JJ twelve_MC years_NNT2 ,_, in_II31 regard_II32 to_II33 the_AT Conservative_JJ government_NN1 's_GE radical_JJ course_NN1 of_IO action_NN1 ,_, changes_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN made_VVN to_II the_AT Welfare_NN1 State_NN1 and_CC life_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 that_CST we_PPIS2 have_VH0 been_VBN powerless_JJ to_TO resist_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR we_PPIS2 require_VV0 participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 to_TO give_VVI the_AT individual_NN1 a_AT1 real_JJ measure_NN1 of_IO control_NN1 over_II the_AT life_NN1 and_CC structure_NN1 of_IO his/her_APPGE environment_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
General_JJ will_NN1 should_VM ensure_VVI the_AT equality_NN1 and_CC liberty_NN1 necessary_JJ for_IF active_JJ citizenship_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; taking_VVG collective_JJ decisions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Participation_NN1 is_VBZ &bquo;_" central_JJ to_II the_AT establishment_NN1 and_CC maintenance_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 democratic_JJ policy_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_IF Pateman_NP1 ,_, participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 hinges_VVZ on_II the_AT premise_NN1 that_CST individuals_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE institutions_NN2 can_VM not_XX be_VBI placed_VVN apart_RL ._. 
</s>
<s>
Problems_NN2 of_IO political_JJ obligation_NN1 can_VM only_RR be_VBI overcome_VVN by_II participatory_JJ political_JJ associations_NN2 which_DDQ would_VM allow_VVI citizens_NN2 to_TO create_VVI their_APPGE own_DA political_JJ obligations_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Decisions_NN2 can_VM be_VBI reassessed_VVN ,_, and_CC if_CS necessary_JJ changed_JJ ,_, only_RR by_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Political_JJ disobedience_NN1 is_VBZ sanctioned_VVN as_II a_AT1 possible_JJ expression_NN1 of_IO active_JJ citizenship_NN1 on_II which_DDQ a_AT1 self-managing_JJ democracy_NN1 is_VBZ based_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
To_II Finley_NP1 ,_, debate_NN1 and_CC discussion_NN1 are_VBR imperative_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Democracy_NN1 requires_VVZ a_AT1 society_NN1 willing_JJ to_TO take_VVI risks_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 argues_VVZ for_IF the_AT classical_JJ form_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 ;_; to_TO rest_VVI on_II political_JJ apathy_NN1 he_PPHS1 believes_VVZ &bquo;_" is_VBZ a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO preserving_JJ liberty_NN1 by_II castrating_VVG it_PPH1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_IF Stewart/Ranson_NP1 ,_, the_AT &bquo;_" distinct_JJ challenge_NN1 for_IF the_AT public_JJ domain_NN1 derives_VVZ from_II the_AT duality_NN1 of_IO publicness_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; need_VV0 to_TO enable_VVI citizens_NN2 in_II their_APPGE plurality_NN1 to_TO express_VVI their_APPGE contribution_NN1 to_II the_AT life_NN1 of_IO the_AT community_NN1 and_CC out_II21 of_II22 that_DD1 plurality_NN1 ,_, to_TO enable_VVI a_AT1 process_NN1 of_IO collective_JJ choice_NN1 and_CC government_NN1 of_IO action_NN1 in_II the_AT public_JJ interest_NN1 to_TO take_VVI place_NN1 ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 reassert_VV0 the_AT need_NN1 to_TO establish_VVI publicness_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN stifled_VVN by_II private_JJ interest_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Public_NN1 and_CC collective_JJ concern_NN1 ,_, as_II31 opposed_II32 to_II33 the_AT individual_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ necessary_JJ for_IF active_JJ citizenship_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Individuals_NN2 need_VV0 to_TO help_VVI one_PPX121 another_PPX122 engender_VV0 a_AT1 common_JJ concern_NN1 for_IF establishing_VVG goods_NN2 and_CC services_NN2 we_PPIS2 all_DB require_VV0 ,_, creating_VVG a_AT1 community_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
&bquo;_" A_AT1 political_JJ community_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ the_AT capacity_NN1 to_TO make_VVI public_JJ choices_NN2 ,_, providing_VVG a_AT1 public_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ able_JK to_TO assemble_VVI ,_, to_TO enter_VVI into_II a_AT1 dialogue_NN1 and_CC decide_VVI about_II the_AT needs_NN2 of_IO the_AT community_NN1 as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT uniquely_RR demanding_VVG challenge_NN1 facing_VVG the_AT public_JJ domain_NN1 ._. &equo;_" 
</s>
<s>
The_AT public_JJ domain_NN1 ,_, therefore_RR ,_, can_VM do_VDI more_DAR than_CSN it_PPH1 is_VBZ to_TO secure_VVI the_AT active_JJ citizenship_NN1 of_IO individuals_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
On_II the_AT one_MC1 hand_NN1 it_PPH1 can_VM emphasise_VVI the_AT regular_JJ contributions_NN2 citizens/groups_NN2 make_VV0 to_II collective_JJ life_NN1 ,_, while_CS on_II the_AT other_JJ it_PPH1 can_VM reduce_VVI their_APPGE participation_NN1 to_II elections_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 growth_NN1 in_II participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 is_VBZ therefore_RR desirable_JJ ,_, emphasising_VVG the_AT needs_NN2 of_IO collective_JJ choice_NN1 and_CC government_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 requirement_NN1 for_IF public_JJ institutions_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR just_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Poverty_NN1 ,_, ignorance_NN1 through_II lack_NN1 of_IO education_NN1 ,_, and_CC idleness_NN1 borne_VVN of_IO enforced_JJ unemployment_NN1 are_VBR all_DB barriers_NN2 to_II participation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Citizenship_NN1 needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI developed_VVN by_II extending_VVG rights_NN2 to_II women_NN2 ,_, blacks_NN2 ,_, and_CC other_JJ minorities_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
A_AT1 balance_NN1 is_VBZ required_VVN between_II representative_NN1 and_CC participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 to_TO allow_VVI for_IF a_AT1 more_RGR active_JJ citizenship_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Bogdanor_NP1 said_VVD &bquo;_" local_JJ government_NN1 needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI made_VVN both_RR more_RGR visible_JJ and_CC also_RR more_RGR exciting_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 can_VM be_VBI done_VDN by_II giving_VVG the_AT electorate_NN1 a_AT1 more_RGR direct_JJ influence_NN1 upon_II the_AT policies_NN2 adopted_VVN in_II the_AT locality_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Stewart/Ranson_NP1 therefore_RR argue_VV0 for_IF four_MC related_JJ developments_NN2 to_TO allow_VVI for_IF greater_JJR popular_JJ participation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Firstly_RR ,_, enlarging_VVG the_AT consultative_JJ processes_NN2 ;_; it_PPH1 is_VBZ essential_JJ for_IF a_AT1 government_NN1 to_TO appeal_VVI to_II the_AT public_NN1 and_CC to_TO allow_VVI citizens_NN2 to_TO express_VVI their_APPGE opinions_NN2 and_CC needs_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ crucial_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 will_VM make_VVI the_AT government_NN1 more_RGR accountable_JJ and_CC genuinely_RR representative_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Secondly_RR ,_, ensuring_VVG the_AT disadvantaged_JJ and_CC less_RGR powerful_JJ are_VBR not_XX excluded_VVN and_CC are_VBR given_VVN a_AT1 chance_NN1 to_TO express_VVI views_NN2 by_II such_DA methods_NN2 as_CSA public_JJ inquiry_NN1 techniques_NN2 ,_, workshops_NN2 ,_, seminars_NN2 ,_, and_CC local_JJ opinion_NN1 polls_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Third_MD ,_, including_II public_JJ protest_NN1 ,_, pressure_NN1 and_CC discussion_NN1 as_CSA &bquo;_" an_AT1 active_JJ politics_NN1 of_IO the_AT community_NN1 &equo;_" to_TO strengthen_VVI government_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Government_NN1 needs_VVZ to_TO listen_VVI to_II the_AT public_NN1 and_CC respond_VVI accordingly_RR ._. 
</s>
<s>
Finally_RR ,_, delegating_VVG power_NN1 to_TO challenge_VVI elected_JJ representatives_NN2 through_II the_AT courts_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Everyone_PN1 should_VM have_VHI equal_JJ protection_NN1 by_II the_AT law_NN1 and_CC the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO appeal_VVI against_II local_JJ authority_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Referendum_NN1 and_CC Bill_NN1 of_IO Rights_NN2 would_VM help_VVI prevent_VVI an_AT1 &bquo;_" elective_JJ dictatorship_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Active_JJ citizenship_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 believe_VV0 ,_, requires_VVZ active_JJ participation_NN1 in_II policy-making_NN1 and_CC taking_VVG responsibilities_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO be_VBI involved_JJ in_II making_VVG political_JJ decisions_NN2 ,_, without_IW having_VHG to_TO fight_VVI for_IF them_PPHO2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Open_JJ government_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR essential_JJ ;_; a_AT1 citizen_NN1 has_VHZ the_AT right_NN1 to_TO know_VVI why_RRQ and_CC how_RRQ decisions_NN2 are_VBR made_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Citizens_NN2 need_VV0 to_TO take_VVI their_APPGE place_NN1 on_II governing_JJ bodies_NN2 and_CC community_NN1 councils_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Citizen_NN1 discussion_NN1 panels_NN2 need_VV0 to_TO explore_VVI issues_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 public_JJ transport_NN1 ,_, community_NN1 care_NN1 ,_, or_CC response_NN1 to_II unemployment_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Public_JJ institutions_NN2 need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI democratised_VVN and_CC decentralisation_NN1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ in_II the_AT public_JJ domain_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO achieve_VVI active_JJ citizenship_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Pateman_NN1 also_RR believes_VVZ political_JJ obligation_NN1 can_VM not_XX be_VBI given_VVN expression_NN1 in_II the_AT liberal_JJ democratic_JJ institutions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 can_VM only_RR occur_VVI in_II participatory_JJ or_CC self-managing_JJ democracy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Politics_NN1 today_RT seems_VVZ to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 subordination_NN1 to_II the_AT judgement_NN1 of_IO others_NN2 &mdash;_- ;_; &bquo;_" citizens_NN2 collectively_RR exercise_VV0 political_JJ authority_NN1 over_II themselves_PPX2 in_II their_APPGE capacity_NN1 as_CSA private_JJ individuals_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ for_IF a_AT1 pluralistic_JJ citizenship_NN1 ,_, self-conscious_JJ membership_NN1 ,_, wide-ranging_JJ commitments_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
As_CSA Walzer_NP1 has_VHZ said_VVN ,_, &bquo;_" however_RGQV useful_JJ we_PPIS2 may_VM be_VBI or_CC want_VV0 to_TO be_VBI our_APPGE usefulness_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX organised_VVN or_CC given_JJ expression_NN1 within_II the_AT political_JJ community_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 may_VM well_RR constitute_VVI an_AT1 entirely_RR sufficient_JJ argument_NN1 for_IF its_APPGE radical_JJ reconstruction_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Democratic_JJ autonomy_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ would_VM specify_VVI conditions_NN2 for_IF the_AT active_JJ participation_NN1 of_IO citizens_NN2 in_II decisions_NN2 which_DDQ affect_VV0 them_PPHO2 ,_, is_VBZ Held_VVN 's_VBZ Ideal_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Democracy_NN1 should_VM be_VBI organised_VVN in_II such_DA a_AT1 way_NN1 as_CSA to_TO become_VVI a_AT1 central_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO people_NN 's_GE daily_JJ lives_NN2 &mdash;_- ;_; &bquo;_" autonomy_NN1 would_VM require_VVI the_AT creation_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 system_NN1 of_IO collective_JJ decision-making_NN1 which_DDQ allowed_VVD extensive_JJ involvement_NN1 of_IO citizens_NN2 in_II public_JJ affairs_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
People_NN therefore_RR have_VH0 extensive_JJ opportunity_NN1 to_TO make_VVI decisions_NN2 that_CST determine_VV0 what_DDQ matters_VVZ ._. 
</s>
<s>
State_VV0 and_CC civil_JJ society_NN1 should_VM be_VBI separated_VVN with_IW a_AT1 diversity_NN1 of_IO power_NN1 centres_NN2 ;_; state_VV0 institutions_NN2 becoming_VVG effective_JJ ,_, accessible_JJ and_CC accountable_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 would_VM involve_VVI freedom_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 and_CC relocation_NN1 of_IO civil_JJ services_NN2 to_II regions_NN2 along_II21 with_II22 widespread_JJ decentralisation_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
An_AT1 increase_NN1 in_II transfer_NN1 of_IO power_NN1 from_II the_AT state_NN1 to_II local_JJ government_NN1 would_VM also_RR make_VVI institutions_NN2 more_RGR accountable_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Establishing_VVG the_AT sovereignty_NN1 of_IO the_AT parliament_NN1 over_II the_AT state_NN1 ,_, with_IW all_DB the_AT citizens_NN2 in_II the_AT society_NN1 having_VHG control_NN1 over_II parliament_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 all_DB signifies_VVZ a_AT1 breaking_NN1 down_RP of_IO powerful_JJ interest_NN1 groups_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 trade_NN1 unions_NN2 and_CC large_JJ corporations_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
At_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 new_JJ avenues_NN2 should_VM be_VBI pursued_VVN to_TO promote_VVI active_JJ citizenship_NN1 ,_, socially_RR owned_VVN enterprises_NN2 ,_, independent_JJ media_NN ,_, and_CC health_NN1 centres_NN2 which_DDQ allow_VV0 new_JJ members_NN2 control_NN1 of_IO the_AT resources_NN2 at_II their_APPGE disposal_NN1 without_IW interference_NN1 from_II the_AT state_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
At_RR21 present_RR22 ,_, few_DA2 opportunities_NN2 exist_VV0 for_IF citizens_NN2 to_TO act_VVI as_CSA participants_NN2 in_II public_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Democratic_JJ autonomy_NN1 seeks_VVZ to_TO redress_VVI this_DD1 state_NN1 of_IO affairs_NN2 by_II creating_VVG opportunities_NN2 for_IF people_NN to_TO establish_VVI themselves_PPX2 &bquo;_" in_II their_APPGE capacity_NN1 as_CSA being_VBG citizens_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Thus_RR a_AT1 dual_JJ democratisation_NN1 ,_, encompassing_VVG the_AT state_NN1 and_CC civil_JJ society_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO provide_VVI active_JJ citizenship_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Active_JJ citizenship_NN1 would_VM also_RR be_VBI possible_JJ through_II democratic_JJ socialism_NN1 as_CSA advocated_VVN by_II Keane/Plant_FU in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO overcome_VVI anti-democratic_JJ forces_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR endemic_JJ &mdash;_- ;_; &bquo;_" the_AT most_RGT visible_JJ and_CC alarming_JJ of_IO these_DD2 &hellip;_... is_VBZ a_AT1 failure_NN1 of_IO the_AT democratic_JJ imagination_NN1 itself_PPX1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
By_II democratising_VVG civil_JJ society_NN1 and_CC the_AT state_NN1 ,_, power_NN1 can_VM be_VBI distributed_VVN to_II public_JJ spheres_NN2 against_II old_JJ bureaucracy_NN1 ,_, surveillance_NN1 ,_, red_JJ tape_NN1 ,_, and_CC state_VV0 control_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Keane_NP1 says_VVZ we_PPIS2 need_VV0 &bquo;_" a_AT1 differentiated_JJ and_CC pluralistic_JJ system_NN1 of_IO power_NN1 where_RRQ decisions_NN2 of_IO interests_NN2 to_II collectives_NN2 of_IO various_JJ sites_NN2 are_VBR made_VVN autonomously_RR by_II all_DB their_APPGE members_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
By_II limiting_JJ state_NN1 action_NN1 and_CC expanding_JJ autonomous_JJ social_JJ life_NN1 ,_, civil_JJ society_NN1 will_VM then_RT have_VHI the_AT potential_JJ to_TO become_VVI a_AT1 non-state_JJ sphere_NN1 comprising_VVG a_AT1 plurality_NN1 of_IO public_JJ spheres_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Two_MC interdependent_JJ functions_NN2 are_VBR necessary_JJ &mdash;_- ;_; expansion_NN1 of_IO social_JJ equality/liberty_NN1 and_CC of_IO state_NN1 institutions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Keane_NP1 believes_VVZ social_JJ organisations_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 self_NN1 governed_VVD trade_NN1 unions_NN2 ,_, enterprises_NN2 ,_, housing_VVG cooperatives_NN2 ,_, refuges_NN2 for_IF battered_JJ women_NN2 ,_, and_CC independent_JJ communications_NN2 media_NN will_VM ensure_VVI political_JJ representatives_NN2 are_VBR kept_VVN under_II control_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
&bquo;_" Civil_JJ society_NN1 should_VM become_VVI a_AT1 permanent_JJ thorn_NN1 in_II the_AT side_NN1 of_IO political_JJ power_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
All_DB are_VBR crucial_JJ to_TO check_VVI bureaucratic_JJ regulation_NN1 ,_, state_VV0 surveillance_NN1 ,_, and_CC invisible_JJ government_NN1 which_DDQ have_VH0 increased_VVN since_II 1945_MC ._. 
</s>
<s>
Local_JJ initiative_NN1 and_CC pluralism_NN1 ,_, growth_NN1 of_IO decision-making_JJ centres_NN2 ,_, and_CC space_NN1 for_IF individual/group_NN1 autonomy_NN1 would_VM promote_VVI an_AT1 active_JJ citizenry_NN1 as_II31 opposed_II32 to_II33 individuals_NN2 set_VVN apart_II21 from_II22 the_AT authoritative_JJ state_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ grown_VVN under_II the_AT Conservatives_NN2 in_II the_AT last_MD twelve_MC years_NNT2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_IF too_RG long_RR ,_, the_AT state_NN1 has_VHZ had_VHN complete_JJ control_NN1 of_IO individual_JJ lives_NN2 ,_, freedoms_NN2 ,_, and_CC powers_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI overcome_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
Our_APPGE lives_NN2 are_VBR overpowered_VVN by_II state_NN1 institutions_NN2 whereas_CS the_AT distribution_NN1 of_IO political_JJ power_NN1 should_VM be_VBI installed_VVN in_II many_DA2 self-regulating_JJ institutions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Parliament_NN1 is_VBZ seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 rubber_JJ stamp_NN1 for_IF decisions_NN2 made_VVN elsewhere_RL ._. 
</s>
<s>
House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP too_RR is_VBZ seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 mainly_RR consultative_JJ body_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Electoral_JJ accountability_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 myth_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
For_IF active_JJ citizenship_NN1 ,_, therefore_RR ,_, Labour_NN1 must_VM unite_VVI all_DB individuals_NN2 together_RL and_CC search_NN1 for_IF common_JJ values_NN2 of_IO citizenship_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 individual_JJ ethos_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
State_NN1 has_VHZ to_TO be_VBI an_AT1 enabling_JJ power_NN1 in_II Plants_NN2 view_VV0 &mdash;_- ;_; to_TO secure_VVI a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO real_JJ freedom_NN1 for_IF individuals_NN2 by_II increasing_JJ abilities_NN2 ,_, opportunities_NN2 ,_, and_CC resources_NN2 for_IF emancipation_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Public_JJ provision_NN1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO live_VVI &bquo;_" an_AT1 autonomous_JJ and_CC purposive_JJ life_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Needs_NN2 have_VH0 to_TO be_VBI met_VVN to_TO enable_VVI active_JJ citizenship_NN1 as_CSA without_IW education_NN1 ,_, welfare_NN1 ,_, health_NN1 care_NN1 ,_, self-respect_NN1 ,_, and_CC law_NN1 we_PPIS2 can_VM not_XX act_VVI in_II a_AT1 way_NN1 we_PPIS2 would_VM like_VVI to_TO ._. 
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<s>
Active_JJ citizenship_NN1 requires_VVZ an_AT1 opportunity_NN1 to_TO participate_VVI in_II normal_JJ patterns_NN2 of_IO life_NN1 ,_, to_TO overcome_VVI unemployment_NN1 ,_, poverty_NN1 ,_, homelessness_NN1 ,_, create_VV0 equal_JJ education_NN1 and_CC equal_JJ opportunities_NN2 ,_, and_CC strengthen_VV0 social_JJ and_CC political_JJ rights_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 been_VBN under_II attack_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
Plant_NN1 wants_VVZ to_TO promote_VVI activity_NN1 and_CC empower_VVI individuals_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
He_PPHS1 feels_VVZ need_NN1 to_TO put_VVI power_NN1 in_II the_AT hands_NN2 of_IO consumers_NN2 so_RR institutions_NN2 reflect_VV0 rights_NN2 and_CC needs_NN2 &mdash;_- ;_; &bquo;_" the_AT empowerment_NN1 of_IO the_AT citizen_NN1 as_CSA consumer_NN1 needs_VVZ to_TO challenge_VVI professionals/managers_NN2 &mdash;_- ;_; to_TO enable_VVI a_AT1 society_NN1 of_IO active_JJ citizens_NN2 rather_II21 than_II22 experts_NN2 &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II welfare_NN1 this_DD1 would_VM involve_VVI the_AT use_NN1 of_IO cash_NN1 rights_NN2 ,_, entitlements_NN2 ,_, and_CC cash_NN1 surrogates_NN2 to_TO empower_VVI individuals_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
There_EX is_VBZ ,_, therefore_RR ,_, a_AT1 broad_JJ consensus_NN1 that_CST our_APPGE present_JJ system_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX designed_VVN to_TO engender_VVI widespread_JJ active_JJ citizenship_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 does_VDZ need_VVI to_TO be_VBI strengthened_VVN to_TO promote_VVI active_JJ citizenship_NN1 at_II local_JJ and_CC national_JJ levels_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Alongside_II this_DD1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 need_NN1 to_TO break_VVI down_RP our_APPGE bureaucracy_NN1 ,_, thereby_RR reducing_VVG the_AT power_NN1 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 and_CC the_AT stranglehold_NN1 it_PPH1 exerts_VVZ on_II the_AT nation_NN1 's_GE political_JJ activities_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT government_NN1 should_VM express_VVI the_AT will_NN1 of_IO the_AT people_NN &mdash;_- ;_; act_VV0 for_IF them_PPHO2 and_CC with_IW them_PPHO2 ._. 
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<s>
Radical_JJ reform_NN1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO enable_VVI those_DD2 who_PNQS do_VD0 want_VVI to_TO be_VBI active_JJ in_II political_JJ life_NN1 to_TO do_VDI so_RR ._. 
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<s>
In_II a_AT1 so-called_JJ democracy_NN1 active_JJ citizenship_NN1 means_VVZ nothing_PN1 when_CS we_PPIS2 are_VBR unable_JK to_TO resist_VVI changes_NN2 to_II welfare_NN1 state_NN1 ,_, privatisation_NN1 ,_, or_CC any_DD government_NN1 policy_NN1 imposed_VVN on_II us_PPIO2 without_IW our_APPGE consent_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
What_DDQ should_VM replace_VVI the_AT poll_NN1 tax_NN1 &mdash;_- ;_; should_VM the_AT citizens_NN2 not_XX decide_VVI ?_? 
</s>
<s>
As_CSA Rousseau_NP1 said_VVD ,_, &bquo;_" yet_RR it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI asked_VVN how_RRQ a_AT1 man_NN1 can_VM be_VBI at_RR21 once_RR22 free_JJ and_CC conform_VV0 to_II wills_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR not_XX his_APPGE own_DA &equo;_" ._. 
</s>
<s>
Not_XX all_DB the_AT interests_NN2 of_IO our_APPGE citizens_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN looked_VVN after_II over_II the_AT last_MD twelve_MC years_NNT2 ._. 
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<s>
Policies_NN2 have_VH0 brought_VVN inequalities_NN2 ,_, promoting_VVG individuals_NN2 to_TO become_VVI self-seeking_JJ ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 an_AT1 active_JJ citizenship_NN1 which_DDQ reached_VVD common_JJ values_NN2 and_CC bare_JJ necessities_NN2 required_VVN by_II us_PPIO2 all_DB ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 situation_NN1 needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI redressed_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO stall_VVI the_AT divisive_JJ effects_NN2 of_IO homelessness_NN1 ,_, poverty_NN1 ,_, and_CC unemployment_NN1 ._. 
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<s>
It_PPH1 does_VDZ seem_VVI today_RT ,_, as_CSA Mill_NN1 once_RR said_VVD ,_, &bquo;_" protection_NN1 is_VBZ needed_VVN against_II the_AT tyranny_NN1 of_IO prevailing_JJ opinion_NN1 &hellip;_... the_AT tendency_NN1 of_IO society_NN1 to_TO impose_VVI its_APPGE own_DA ideas_NN2 and_CC practices_NN2 &equo;_" and_CC by_II &bquo;_" an_AT1 increasing_JJ inclination_NN1 to_TO stretch_VVI unduly_RR the_AT powers_NN2 of_IO society_NN1 over_II the_AT individual_NN1 by_II the_AT force_NN1 of_IO opinion_NN1 and_CC even_RR by_II that_DD1 of_IO legislation_NN1 &equo;_" ._. 
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<s>
An_AT1 apt_JJ quote_NN1 for_IF today_RT 's_GE democracy_NN1 in_II which_DDQ citizens_NN2 are_VBR powerless_JJ to_TO resist_VVI decisions_NN2 and_CC policies_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR implemented_VVN without_IW any_DD reference_NN1 to_II their_APPGE needs_NN2 or_CC opinions_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
In_II our_APPGE society_NN1 others_NN2 are_VBR doing_VDG our_APPGE thinking_NN1 for_IF us_PPIO2 ,_, a_AT1 concept_NN1 Mill_NN1 and_CC Rousseau_NP1 wanted_VVD to_TO prevent_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT road_NN1 towards_II more_RGR active_JJ citizenship_NN1 will_VM be_VBI one_MC1 fraught_JJ with_IW difficulties_NN2 ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ if_CS we_PPIS2 want_VV0 to_TO increase_VVI our_APPGE freedom_NN1 and_CC status_NN1 as_CSA thinking_VVG ,_, free_JJ individuals_NN2 ._. 
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<s>
Much_RR ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, depends_VVZ on_II the_AT people_NN and_CC whether_CSW they_PPHS2 wish_VV0 to_TO participate_VVI ,_, but_CCB the_AT opportunity_NN1 to_TO do_VDI so_RR should_VM be_VBI strengthened_VVN ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 would_VM be_VBI preferable_JJ if_CS we_PPIS2 had_VHD a_AT1 system_NN1 where_RRQ people_NN could_VM become_VVI more_RGR involved_JJ in_II important_JJ government_NN1 decisions_NN2 ,_, be_VBI able_JK to_TO register_VVI an_AT1 opinion_NN1 on_II government_NN1 policy_NN1 ,_, and_CC show_VV0 the_AT government_NN1 the_AT way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ public_NN1 opinion_NN1 is_VBZ moving_VVG ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 is_VBZ important_JJ ;_; we_PPIS2 should_VM be_VBI able_JK to_TO have_VHI an_AT1 influence_NN1 over_II institutions_NN2 and_CC policies_NN2 which_DDQ affect_VV0 our_APPGE lives_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
There_EX should_VM also_RR be_VBI participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 at_II local/individual_JJ levels_NN2 ,_, with_IW local_JJ government_NN1 perhaps_RR transferred_VVN to_II popular_JJ assemblies_NN2 ;_; devolution_NN1 for_IF Scotland_NP1 and_CC Wales_NP1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
This_DD1 will_VM increase_VVI efficiency_NN1 and_CC be_VBI to_II the_AT good_JJ of_IO the_AT respective_JJ communities_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
Democracy_NN1 in_II the_AT work-place_NN1 with_IW firms_NN2 under_II workers_NN2 '_GE control_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR important_JJ ._. 
</s>
<s>
Active_JJ citizenship_NN1 is_VBZ still_RR an_AT1 ideal_JJ ,_, but_CCB we_PPIS2 must_VM not_XX lose_VVI the_AT vision_NN1 of_IO the_AT classical_JJ theorists_NN2 ,_, regarding_VVG participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 perhaps_RR will_VM never_RR be_VBI realised_VVN as_CSA it_PPH1 is_VBZ questionable_JJ as_II21 to_II22 how_RGQ many_DA2 people_NN do_VD0 want_VVI to_TO be_VBI active_JJ in_II politics_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
However_RR ,_, the_AT vote_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 old_JJ freedom_NN1 and_CC we_PPIS2 require_VV0 easier_JJR access_NN1 for_IF those_DD2 wishing_VVG to_TO act_VVI by_II strengthening_VVG civil_JJ ,_, political_JJ and_CC social_JJ rights_NN2 ,_, and_CC democratising_VVG centralised_JJ state_NN1 power_NN1 ._. 
</s>
<s>
The_AT barriers_NN2 to_II active_JJ citizenship_NN1 are_VBR many_DA2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
They_PPHS2 need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI chipped_VVN away_RL ._. 
</s>
<s>
After_CS each_DD1 election_NN1 we_PPIS2 are_VBR left_VVN simply_RR with_IW the_AT power_NN1 to_TO obey_VVI ._. 
</s>
<s>
Our_APPGE opinions_NN2 meaning_VVG nothing_PN1 as_II the_AT next_MD government_NN1 sets_VVZ on_II a_AT1 course_NN1 of_IO action_NN1 which_DDQ people_NN directly_RR have_VH0 little_DA1 to_TO do_VDI with_IW ,_, although_CS indirectly_RR may_VM adversely_RR affect_VVI their_APPGE lives_NN2 ._. 
</s>
<s>
It_PPH1 is_VBZ this_DD1 lack_NN1 of_IO control_NN1 which_DDQ we_PPIS2 have_VH0 to_TO think_VVI of_IO when_CS arguing_VVG on_II the_AT merits_NN2 of_IO strengthening_VVG participatory_JJ democracy_NN1 to_TO achieve_VVI active_JJ citizenship_NN1 ._. 
</s>
