In this essay I will discuss the topic of human-wildlife conflicts, it will clarify the definition of the phenomenon, its present condition, where it occurs, and in what form. The term Human-wildlife conflict refers to the situation where human and animal needs and actions are in conflict with one another. It results in disadvantages for local animal populations or a specific group of people activities; it may also have an impact on the local or national economy. Conflicts between the two are on the increase due to the growing population in present day society. The increasing population puts pressure on the land and wildlife as we are expanding into wilderness areas. (Timm, 1996 & Wildlife Conservation Society). It is not an issue that only occurs in tropical or specific regions of the world. In most cases, wherever humans and wildlife interact (which is worldwide), conflicts usually arise. (Conover, 2002). This issue of conflict is not just a one-way problem, it isn't always human actions creating the issues nor is it always animals aggravating humans. There are countless types of human-wildlife conflicts that affect both humans and animals. The main conflicts occur as a result from: crop damage and crop raiding, hunting, the killing of livestock by predators, loss of habitat, and the exclusion of humans from resources. Crop damage/raiding is an odd issue as the closing conflict is wildlife damaging human crops, however this is often the result of human interference or development. For example animals will damage crops as a result of becoming fearless of and accustomed to human presence, maybe from the introduction of tourism. An example of this is the boreal forests in Alberta in Canada. As tourism has increased here, the grizzly bears (usually apprehensive of humans) are becoming comfortable with human presence. They often take advantage of having humans around by feeding on crops and even on garbage at campsites. This causes conflicts in both directions: the bears are being unnaturally exposed to a lot of human company and in turn are getting relocated or killed when they go to areas inhabited by people. There is a danger for humans of being approached by the dangerous animal and having their crops damaged. A step is being taken to introduce Karelian bear dogs from Finland and Russia that are trained to be aggressive towards bears and scare them off. If dogs are aggressive towards bears, the issue arises of whether they can be dangerous to humans? . (Worldwide life, no date) This example shows that the problem of crop damage and raiding is a result of human interference, like tourism. Another example resulting in wildlife raiding crops is the exclusion of humans from resources such as national parks. A savannah/ grassland example is Kenya, which is one of many countries where few of the parks designated to conserving wildlife, permits human activity, apart from tourists who bring money to the areas. Some of these include; The National parks of Mt Kenya, Lake Nakuru, Tsavo, and Nairobi. As the wildlife is boxed in and separate from human activities (i.e hunting) wildlife numbers are increasing, resulting in more competition for food resources. This compels them to look for food outside of the parks in order to survive. This has harsh effects on farmers, cattle herdsmen, and landowners as they are loosing crops, such as maize, beans, potatoes, and fruit. They also loose their cattle, sheep and goats to the carnivores. It has been noted that some of the poorest rural communities in Kenya live near to the National parks, maybe this is due to the severe results of this particular human-wildlife conflict. (Kimega, 2003). Predators on livestock create another significant human-wildlife conflict. Predators that exist in areas other than tropical regions include Golden Eagles, Foxes and the Hen Harrier (a bird of prey). Red Foxes inhabit Europe, North Africa, and America, they are a problem for urban and rural communities. They scavenge through trash in towns and cities, some carry diseases, and will prey on small livestock, including chickens, geese, young lambs, and ducks. (Working for wildlife, no date). Golden Eagles are a less apparent predator, but do prey on livestock, particularly where large populations of Eagles exist. They generally prey on young animals such as lambs and goats but are capable of killing the adult. (Hadidian et al, no date). live Hen harriers exist in heather moorland, and prey on grouse; the game managers experience a dilemma with this particular bird of prey. A good example of the conflict is seen in the uplands of the United Kingdom. The Hen Harrier reduces the grouse harvest and in turn the Hen harriers are killed. High numbers of this bird of prey will result in a loss of income for the grouse moor owners. This is classed as a 'predator on livestock conflict' as the grouse owners raise them for food and shooting purposes in order to make a living. A further conflict arises from this issue, conservationists are trying to protect this bird, and grouse managers want to reduce them in numbers. Management actions are being undertaken at present to help reduce the human-wildlife issue. (Redpath et al, 2004). Maybe more obviously, predators such as lions and other large cats cause a great loss of livestock in tropical and grassland regions. Unlike other designated areas in Kenya that were discussed earlier, the Laikipia District in Northern Kenya sees Masai herding people, commercial cattle ranchers, predators and livestock coexisting. The predators do however pose threat on the peoples livelihoods and safety. In order for them to protect themselves and their animals, guns and poison have come into use on the lions, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, and wild dogs. This seems to be becoming more of an issue as predator numbers are declining and conservationists wish to protect them more. (Wildlife Conservation Society, no date). Hunting animals is another factor contributing to declining wildlife populations thus creating a further human-wildlife conflict. Hunting can be divided into a few areas: subsistence hunting, hunting for trade and trophy hunting/sport. The bush meat trade in Africa is seeing an unsustainable resource, as human populations are increasing which coincide with wildlife populations declining. The income from trading in bush meat can exceed the national wage, making it a worthwhile livelihood. Commercial logging has seemed to intensify the problems in the bush meat trade and it's negative effects, not only by destroying wildlife and their habitats but also opening up transport links for trading the meat to markets and cities, thus increasing consumer numbers. (Eves, 2000) It has been predicted that within the next fifteen to fifty years wild apes in Africa will be gone altogether if things continue as they are. (Bush meat Project, no date). Despite the prohibition on trading bush meat, up to five million tonnes from the tropical and subtropical forests on the Congo basin is traded each year. This has resulted in increased threats to endangered species such as the great ape. (Kirby, 2003). However it's not as easy as just cracking down and banning the killing of bush meat altogether, as so many depend on it as a source of food, and a meat for trading to make a living. Hunting as a sport occurs in tropical regions of the world as well as westernised countries. Parks and ranches in tropical and grassland regions make good incomes from allowing people, a lot of them tourists, to kill game, ranging from kudu and springbok to zebra and leopards. (Namibia Hunting, no date) This type of hunting is classed as trophy hunting, it is a form of sport, partakers will hunt the wild game and parts of the animal, such as the antlers, may be kept as a trophy or memorial. An example is the Klawerberg Game ranch in Namibia, where tourists will pay a entrance fee and either buy a package which includes slaying five specific game, or pay individually, a baboon will cost $180, a giraffe $4000, a Duiker $300 and a leopard $4000. (Namibia Hunting, no date). A different type of hunting in the form of a sport is: fox hunting, this has caused many debates in present-day society. In the UK, the sport has been recently banned, even with strong opposition from pro-hunters who want the tradition to continue. In banning this sport to ease the human-wildlife conflict, the problem of wild animals preying on livestock may arise, with foxes killing poultry etc. As a result of banning the sport solely in the UK, South-west France has seen an increase in tourists wanting to fox hunt there, as it is legal. (123 Voyage, no date) Many of the residents, in towns such as Pau in the Pyrenees, are against tourists coming over and escalating the sport. It is predicted that Fox hunting in France may also be banned in the near future. (Countryfile BBC1, 2005). These two types of hunting as a sport show how human-wildlife conflicts can vary a great deal depending on the country, its economy and its wildlife. Finally, there is the human-wildlife conflict of habitat loss. Where wildlife suffers the consequences of human advancement and growth, it occurs all over the world, in areas were humans subsist. Logging results in enormous loss of habitats and wildlife itself. The Amazon rainforest is a prime example, where deforestation and logging is having huge effects on the biodiversity and social framework of the forest. Even though laws have been laid out to reduce the negative effects of logging, many of them are ignored. (Amazon Destruction, 2003). Unfortunately like in other cases, one conflict often leads to another, logging is closely linked to road construction- which results in more habitat loss as well as increased access for more logging. Those who don't work in the logging trade also have conflicting issues with loggers- who are destroying their habitats, resources and livelihoods. (Solon et al, 1995). In the United States, humans are creating problems for themselves by invading and destroying the deer's habitats. As suburban development extends into rural areas, wildlife is forced into smaller and smaller parts of their natural environment. This has resulted in deer especially, to be forced to find food sources in residential areas, grazing on lawns and gardens. This creates two human-wildlife conflicts, habitat loss for the deer and in turn loss or damage to crops or gardens for humans. As the deer's habitat is being converted into roads and housing, perhaps surprisingly their population size has increased, this is due to the them finding the short-cropped lawns and flowers an easy and attractive, year round food source. Another reason for the population increase may be due to humans forcing out potential deer predators such as wolves and bobcats. (Lavendel, 2002). This type of habitat loss conflict can be seen in all developed and developing regions as they expand their urban areas. In answering the original question, human-wildlife conflict refers to situations where humans and wildlife needs and actions are in conflict. As shown in my examples, it is not an occurrence solely in tropical regions of the world. The main reason why it isn't defined to certain areas of the globe is because these conflicts will arise wherever humans and animals co-exist and interact, which is worldwide. As has been discussed, the main conflicts include: crop raiding and damage, predators on livestock, hunting and the loss of habitat. Crop damage can often be a result of human interference, the grizzly bears in Canada have become used to human presence due to tourism and now raid trash and crops. As talked about prior to this conclusion, in North America, deer's now raid and eat the crops of humans who have invaded their natural habitat. Predators are always at the top of the food chain, without them biodiversity's wouldn't be as they are. Predators can range from lions in Kenya killing the Masai's livestock, to foxes in the UK preying on chickens and ducks. Hunting can be in different forms, killing bush meat in Cameroon for subsistence and trade is one form, hunting as a sport is another one, this may be trophy hunting in Namibia or fox hunting in Europe. Destroying habitats is a critical issue and can bring about numerous conflicts. Commercial logging is one of the world's most significant reasons for habitat loss. As discussed earlier, in the Amazon, conflicts arise with the wildlife, the loggers and local communities, due to loss of resources, land right issues, and the loss of habitats. All these examples outline the types of conflicts that arise between wildlife and humans, where they occur, ranging from tropical forests and savannah grasslands to boreal and developed regions, and in what form. 