Describe and critically evaluate the Social Learning Theory of the acquisition of Gender Identity.
Social Learning Theory is one of the four theories of gender acquisition and relies on imitation and conditioning of a child as the main forces behind the acquisition of gender identity.
Gender identity is dependent on the personality of the individual and refers to our inner feeling of being masculine or feminine in outlook.
Unlike sex identity, which is fixed at conception and cannot be changed, gender identity can change and a woman may have a masculine identity and vice versa.
Social learning theory refers to the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate.
This asks whether a child's identity is influenced by nature &mdash; through hormone levels and other biological aspects or by nurturing &mdash; through socialisation and the way a child is treated by its parents and other influential people.
Social learning theorists say that everything you are is a result of socialisation &mdash; everything is learnt and nothing is  innate .
Imitation or role modelling by children describes the way that they copy the actions or behaviour of someone they admire, usually of their own sex and possibly a parent or even a tv character.
Conditioning describes the way that continually carrying out a task in a set way can teach a child how to act, and can be divided into two variants.
Operant conditioning relies on positive and negative reward for reinforcement of values and actions, whilst Classical conditioning consists of association of an event with a stimulus.
One of the classic studies of imitation by children was carried out by Bandura.
He took a group of young boys and monitored their play, divided them into three groups and showed each group one of three scenarios and then monitored them again.
The first  showed  an adult playing peacefully with a doll, the second an adult playing aggressively with the doll and the third an adult playing aggressively and being rewarded.
The first group remained unmoved, the second group were more aggressive and the third group even more so, proving the influence of aggressive acts on young children.
This suggests that violent television programmes have an  effect  on children.
What is also interesting is the way that stereotypes are portrayed on tv with the males being strong, sometimes violent, sometimes very intelligent, characters and the females being shown as helpless, stupid, domesticated and neurotic.
According to studies by Goldberg and Lewis and by Fagot, mothers automatically treat boy and girl babies differently.
Goldberg and Lewis sampled very young babies between 6 and 13 months and they observed that mothers of female babies were more protective of them, keeping them close to their side, cuddling them a lot and that the babies liked to play quietly with soft toys and absorbing tasks.
The male babies were encouraged to explore, to bang things and make a lot of noise and generally be more active.
Fagot's sample 24 families were observed while the children were between 20 and 24 months old.
By this time their personalities were being deliberately shaped by their parents.
Girls were encouraged to ask for help, play with dolls, take an interest in clothes and dressing up and stay close to parents and discouraged from being noisy and playing rough games.
Boys were encouraged to explore toys like trucks and bricks and build their strength, and discouraged from needing help, doing anything &bquo;feminine&equo; and playing with dolls.
These are examples of Operant conditioning and show the power of parents in shaping the personality of the child.
That mothers treat the sexes differently is confirmed by the study in which toddlers were dressed in clothes belonging to the opposite sex and then were observed whilst being looked after by a woman who was not their mother.
In all cases the &bquo;boys&equo; were given more freedom to explore whilst the &bquo;girls&equo; were kept close and scolded for being noisy and for &bquo;tomboyish&equo; behaviour!
Margaret Mead's study of three tribes in Papua New Guinea in the 1920's emphasizes the power of socialisation.
The first tribe took equal shares in child rearing and produced caring, gentle children.
The second tribe was aggressive and war-like and children were largely ignored, and left to their own devices and grew up like their parents.
In the third tribe, the women looked after all the children together and the  men's  lives revolved around the women who did all the trading and decision-making, the boys would join the men who were very artistic and gentle, when they were of age, while the girls were encouraged to be competitive and strong.
The third tribe showed a complete role reversal to the Western model of sex stereotyping which had nothing to do with biological or genetic factors.
The second showed a definite tendency towards a masculine outlook within the whole tribe and the first showed what co-operation between the two sexes could achieve, with a more feminine outlook.
Social learning theory does not take into account the biological and genetic factors of nature however, in believing that everything is learnt and nothing is  innate  and sometimes these must be taken into account.
It does not take into account that in a group of nursery children each will be happy to play with the  others'  toys until stopped by peer group pressure.
Why should not a little boy with a feminine side play dollies with the girls?
Professor Dabs's study of cases of female prisoners, convicted of violent crimes, in America, showed they had unusually high levels of the male sex hormone testosterone.
This suggests that the violence might have been caused by these high hormone levels, not conditioning.
Bouchard's studies of identical twins separated at birth and brought up in different countries, classes and cultures, showed that they still shared similarities in actions and habits despite separation.
One set wore the same number of rings, another shared the curious habit of flushing the lavatory before using it while others married on the same day, had the same jobs and had spouses of the same name.
This suggests that there are some  innate  instincts in human beings to do things whatever the socialisation says.
Social learning theory can be applied in many cases but is too extensive when it says that nothing in the human being is  innate  and that everything must be learnt.
The nature-nurture debate cannot therefore be readily resolved and gender identity is heavily influenced by parental treatment and socialisation, but also is influenced by the genetic  make-up  of a person. 
Essay II
Have Post-war changes in educational policy and provision brought Britain closer to realising the vision of the meritocratic society?
Education in Britain has always been considered some of the best in the world.
The provision of free education up to University level is something that is taken for granted.
Since  the  World War II, it has gradually changed from being selective, non-selective and then selective again, according to the Government and has been used as a great political tool.
In many ways it has failed to realise the changes in British society and has had problems in providing a service for ethnic minorities.
Education is a great political issue today, but it was not until the second quarter of the 19th century that the government had any interest in it.
The schools that existed were run by either the Church or private individuals and education was for the rich or those able enough to get scholarships, and women's education was not an issue.
The Industrial Revolution brought about educational awareness in the working classes and the government started to give small amounts of funding to the schools run by charitable religious societies in 1833.
By 1870 elementary education was compulsory for all, with low fees made possible by government funding with a school leaving age of 14.
The Board schools were set up, governed by local worthies, creating a dual system.
Elementary education was made free in 1891 and 1899 saw the creation of a government Education Department.
The Education Act of 1902 brought about the establishment of secondary schools with 25 per cent of places going as scholarships to children who had passed  an  exam at the elementary schools.
This was the first selective exam and was the precursor of the 11-plus.
Rab Butler's 1944 Education Act created the Ministry of Education, saw education in three stages &mdash; primary, secondary and tertiary &mdash; and raised the school leaving age to 15.
But more importantly it brought free secondary education for all.
It created three different kinds of school with &bquo;parity of esteem&equo; and children were allocated according to the result of the 11-plus examination.
The Grammar schools were for the most able, bright academic pupils and were run along private school lines.
The Technical schools were for those who had a technical, practical bent.
The Secondary Modern schools were &bquo;for the rest&equo;.
The principle which inspired this was the idea of giving children equal opportunities to aspire to higher education and higher social status as a result.
The Tripartite system, as it is known, effectively segregated the high achievers from the others, but also managed to segregate children socially.
Researchers in the 50's showed that children from middle-class families were far more likely to gain a place  at  grammar school than the children of the working-class and the system was not therefore providing equality of opportunity.
 Suspicion  fell on the 11-plus exam and research showed there was a large margin of error and mis-selection and that in some parts of the country it was easier to get into grammar school than in other areas.
As a result of the problems with the tripartite system the Labour government of 1965, issued guidelines for the local authorities, creating Comprehensive schools.
The idea behind the comprehensive was the belief that within a school there should be an absence of privilege, there should be social cohesion and social justice.
By the early 80's 80 per cent of children were in comprehensive schools &mdash; the system not having been adopted by all education authorities.
The Labour government of 74&ndash;79 had made it compulsory for local education authorities to reorganise secondary schools along comprehensive lines in the 1976 Education Act, but one of the first acts of the Conservative government of 1979 was to repeal this.
Throughout this, the Independent/Private sector has continued, with few governments willing to bring it into line or abolish it.
Although fee paying, through the assisted places scheme they provide places for pupils unable to pay fees &mdash; this money comes from public funds.
Although only 6 per cent of children are educated in them, they exert considerable power, because the social elite are amongst those educated there and they in turn become successful in industry and business.
Over the past 20 years, there has been a growth in the number of these schools, because many parents have felt that governments have not been providing the quality of education once found in grammar schools, and are willing to forgo expensive holidays and luxuries, in order to provide the education they want for their children.
Today, the State secondary sector faces underfunding as a result of successive Conservative government education cuts, but at the same time have been forced to change the curriculum to take into account the GCSE.
This has left morale and funds low and has resulted in schools having to turn to Parent-Teacher Associations and businesses, in order to provide bare essentials like textbooks.
As a result schools in leafy, middle-class, suburbs have become richer and more successful, whilst those in the inner-cities have become poorer and more deprived.
This has naturally had an effect on the quality of education found in these schools.
The inner-city schools are most likely to have larger numbers of  Afro-Caribbean  and Asian pupils, and the education system is failing to provide for their special needs because of underfunding.
The GCSE was supposed to be the great leveller of examinations, a combination of the GCE O-Level &mdash; the grammar school exam &mdash; and the CSE &mdash; the comprehensive/secondary modern exam.
The results coming out show that some inner city schools are failing to achieve the results found in the suburbs, providing little hope for school leavers, fighting for jobs in a fiercely competitive market.
The move by the present government to encourage Schools to &bquo;opt out&equo; and take charge of their own funds, can only compound this.
Already some of the wealthier comprehensives have become selective, and are only taking high-achievers and are depriving local children of a good education and taking more able pupils from outside their catchment areas.
Streaming is appearing again and the government seem to be encouraging this with the creation of City Technology Colleges.
The CTCs are highly selective, interviewing parents as well as pupils and place emphasis on high level technology and business skills, and are full of middle class pupils.
The British education system is failing to provide equality of education for its pupils.
The underfunding has resulted in poor provision of essentials, like text books and stationery and a lack of computers for the teaching of information technology.
In many schools, teachers are spending their spare time fund-raising and making equipment to support the new Curriculum.
The post-war changes were designed to encourage equality for all, but successive governments appear to have seen education as a vote winner and have made promises which they have failed to keep.
We are no closer to a meritocratic society than we were in 1944.
Social stratification still exists and the middle-classes still dominate business and industry &mdash; as well as the government. 
Essay III
The Dependency Ratio
1.
What are the causes of an increase in the Dependency Ratio?
The Dependency Ratio, refers to the ratio between those in employment and those dependent on them for financial support, &mdash; directly or indirectly eg children, the elderly and the unemployed.
There has been an increase in the dependency ratio because of several factors.
Firstly people are living longer, there is low infant mortality, but the average age of the population is rising as well.
In 1911 only 5 per cent of the population were over 65, today the over 65's account for 15 per cent of the population.
Secondly, there has been a drop in the number of school leavers as a result of the fall in the birth rate between 1964 and 1977 causing a drop in the number of workers from this age group.
Thirdly the recession has created high unemployment, with an increase in demand for social security and unemployment benefit.
These factors have created a demographic time bomb . 
2.
What are the implications for a) Welfare b) Employment c) Recruitment d) Marketing
a)
The implications for welfare are immense.
The increase in the dependency ratio has created a demographic time bomb, with the  dependency  ratio getting out of hand through the difficulty of a smaller  tax base  supporting a larger welfare burden.
The  tax base  represents the number of workers and taxpayers in the country, and all welfare payments are made from the taxes taken from the employed.
If the tax base is too small to support the welfare burden, there is not enough money to provide for the demand of welfare services and people have to do without.
The aging population creates a greater strain on the Health Service, with the need to provide more day centres and more hospital beds.
The high unemployment creates a strain on the  DHSS  and the aging population needs pension payments.
This all adds up to huge difficulties in providing for the population.
b)
The difficulties for employment, are that due to the drop in the birth rate in 64&ndash;77 the number of school leavers has dropped &mdash; 5.7 million in 1991 compared with 6.2 million in 1986, with a projected drop to 4.9 million by 1996.
This means that employers who traditionally take on school leavers are having to look elsewhere to augment their staff.
The fact that there are fewer young workers could mean that people have to retire later in the future.
The nature of employment is also being affected by the increase in the dependency ratio.
The building industry has been cashing in by providing sheltered housing schemes for elderly people, there is a whole holiday industry built around holidays for the elderly and more and more private nursing homes are springing up.
c)
The drop in school leavers means that employers are anxious to keep existing staff for as long as possible.
Some, like Marks and Spencer, are doing this by increasing pay, others by providing creches and care facilities to encourage mothers to return to work after starting families.
Maternity benefits and an increase in maternity leave are also being offered by some companies.
There are also job share schemes, with two people sharing the same job to fit in with collecting children from school and home working is being developed with the aid of technology.
Other firms, like B&amp;Q, are employing retired people and &bquo;mature workers&equo; in their businesses.
However, unemployment and the recession mean that many firms can no longer afford the creches and bonuses, and are reluctantly having to curtail them.
d)
The marketing people are keeping a close eye on the demographic changes.
Shops like Top Shop, which were once designed to appeal to teenagers, are being forced to look to older markets in order to retain profits, due to the drop in the birth rate.
Toy manufacturers also have to think ahead in order to cater for the numbers of school children and babies.
But the over 50's have the lion's share of the savings &mdash; more than 70 per cent &mdash; and this market is gradually being tapped into.
The marketing people predict that in the future, the country will become more &bquo;user-friendly&equo; for elderly people, with telephones with large buttons, cars with larger wing-mirrors and clearer dash boards and simpler, easier, household appliances.
Even television programmes will have fewer scene changes, and already many of them deal with retirement in a humorous way &mdash; &bquo;Waiting for God&equo; and &bquo;One Foot in the Grave&equo; for example.
There are more and more opticians springing up in the High Street, shops selling healthcare equipment and equipment for the elderly are on the increase and shops are becoming more aware of deaf and disabled customers.
Mature customers are also being offered good deals on insurance policies and short term loans.
Essay IV
Women in Management
Women are still something of a rarity in senior positions within business and industry, despite efforts.
Recent reports by a number of organisations have urged companies to address this problem seriously.
Women account for only one in four junior managers and at senior management this drops to one or two per hundred.
The Industrial Society has suggested half the management positions should be filled by women by the year 2000.
Those companies and organisations successful in this sphere, use it increasingly for publicity purposes &mdash; hiding the facts to a certain extent.
The &bquo;glass ceiling&equo; &mdash; the invisible barrier to high promotion &mdash; has however been breached and the numbers are rising steadily.
The fact is that many still fall on the way, due to lack of provision for maternity leave and child care &mdash; among other problems.
Losses of women on graduate management training programmes are high, &mdash; Unilever lost 75 per cent within 5 years &mdash; causing special concern.
The Civil Service experiences similar problems.
1.
 Organisations'  reasons for wanting more women
a)
There has been an increase in suitable candidates , with women becoming more highly qualified through educational opportunities &mdash; businesses realise they cannot afford to cut themselves off from 50 per cent of the market eg IBM, Unilever.
b)
The decline of traditional industries , and the development of the service sector &mdash; which realises it is necessary to use women's experience to get ahead &mdash; eg new opportunities, development of new business, women's purchasing power and Courtaulds.
c)
Social attitudes have changed towards women , organisations need to appear progressive and support equal opportunities, eg women's economic power.
2.
Strategies for getting women in
a)
By setting targets publicly  eg BBC &mdash; 40 per cent middle &amp; 30 per cent senior management by 1996.
b)
Increasing intake and hoping for movement up to management level  eg Unilever!
3.
The Future
Retaining women within an organisation may be the strategy to adopt, to fulfil the Industrial Society's targets.
The basic problem is a lack of women in a position for management promotion, because they are leaving before they get the opportunity.
Essay V
Development Policy towards women in less developed countries has changed from one which saw them only as mothers, to a more holistic approach which emphasizes both the productive and reproductive roles of Women.
Comment.
&bquo;They were shocked.
We were looking at summaries of the agency's projects in Africa.
But here was I, an African woman on the grants committee of a British aid agency, suggesting that we scrap a paragraph that dealt with &bquo;gender implications&equo;.
My colleagues protested.
The paragraph was very important, they said.
At least it forced project officers to consider the role of women.
I argued that in most cases it was quite clear that the projects officers had not paid any serious attention to gender issues.
So why pretend?&equo;
Wanjiru Kihoro
The Underdeveloped countries of the world contain over two thirds of the world's population.
Statistically, half of them are women, and that third of the world's population is only now beginning to feel that they have a say in the running of their lives.
Development planning first became widely known about in the 1950's and since then various attempts have been made to help women, specifically, in underdeveloped countries with varying degrees of success.
The first of these was the Welfare approach which was in vogue from 1950 to the early 70's and still exists in areas.
This took the approach that mother and baby health and welfare was what the women wanted, seeing the woman's main role in society was as a breeder.
Then came the UN Decade for Women (1976&ndash;1985), which highlighted and publicized the important and unacknowledged role which women had to play in economic and social development.
This idea came out of Women in Development, and the Equity approach saw women as active members of a developing society.
The WID then went on to encourage women to increase their productivity and saw their poverty as a reflection on underdevelopment, and not a result of their social status.
Today, women's development planning is approached in a more aware manner and the two approaches used aim to give the women control.
The Efficiency approach seeks to determine that development is effective and that women's roles as contributors to development and managers of poverty are encouraged.
The Empowerment approach is however the one which the women themselves subscribe to and is supported by groups such as the feminist group, Women in Nigeria.
The idea is to make women self-reliant and visible.
In order to appreciate this strong feminist stance that is being taken it is necessary to understand a few of the problems of women in the Developing World.
One of the major problems is foreign aid agencies failing to find out what roles women play within society.
Colonialism is responsible for the position of women in developing countries.
It established a capitalist economy, produced urban migration and left women doing the men's work as well as their own in areas where the men had departed for the cities.
The supposed inferiority of women to men, although it existed in developing countries before colonialism, was reinforced by Victorian colonists and through  Christianity .
Independence has brought some improvement in status, but women are still not recognised for the important role they play in society.
Indicative of this is the fact that in most African countries, issues of women and development are dealt with by a Ministry of Culture and Social Development &mdash; the same ministry that deals with destitutes.
Women are not only responsible for the care, education and development of their children, but also for the maintenance of the family circle.
Wage cuts in developing countries have caused the employment of women as a cheap source of labour, and have forced men to move to the cities to find work.
This leaves women as heads of households.
As can be seen by figure 1, the number of households headed by women in Latin America and the Caribbean, accounts for 25 per cent of the  region's  households, and in Africa 17 per cent, whilst   those of the developed regions only account for 20 per cent.
As the head of a household, these women must work in order to feed her family.
She will most probably be involved in agriculture, in subsistence farming of crops like rice.
This is the  principal  economic activity in Africa and is carried out almost exclusively  by  women, whilst men engage in cash crop production.
It is in this area that a classic example of planners failing to see what contribution women are making occurred.
In Gambia in the mid '80's, a number of well-known aid agencies and charities set up a rice production project.
They automatically assumed the households were headed by men, who managed resources  on behalf of  the other members.
They also assumed the rice-growers were men, and credits and loans were offered to the men, who accepted them.
They had not taken the time to find out that it was actually the women who traditionally grew the rice for domestic consumption and then exchanged the surplus for other goods or services.
To make matters worse the scheme included an irrigation scheme on common land used by the women and with the help of the government, the men gained exclusive use of these lands, pushing women onto inferior, poorer quality land where they had to continue to try and grow the traditional rice.
The women ended up having to negotiate everything through their husbands, and when they were expected to work for nothing on their  husbands'  plots they refused and demanded full payment.
Once they have finished their paid work, women in developing countries spend a large amount of time on domestic tasks such as cooking.
Low pay and high prices mean they have to walk further to find cheaper goods, which take longer to prepare, and men sometimes feel marginalised and turn to drink and violence when their women are too tired or busy to give them attention.
As can be seen in figure women in Nepal and the Ivory Coast spend the majority of their time  in  housework, whilst the men spend very little time.
It is interesting to note however that Nepalese men and women spend almost equal amounts of time involved in their own activities and with their family.
Women as much or more than men everywhere in the world &mdash; up to 13 hours more than men in Africa and Asia and very poor women are working 60&ndash;90 hours per week just to maintain their living standards of a decade ago.
It is also interesting to note that the value of women's unpaid housework as a percentage of GNP is estimated at 33 per cent in India, this is compared with 23 per cent in the US.
Women in developing countries are generally  undereducated  because young girls are often taken out of schools as early as possible to allow their mothers to work whilst they take care of younger siblings.
There has been an improvement however, as can be seen from figure 3, which shows a notable drop in illiteracy levels amongst women between 1970 and 1990.
Education is also aiding the  take-up  of birth control, and use has increased from under 15 per cent of sexually active women in 1960/5 to 33 per cent in the early 80's.
As a result women are having fewer children &mdash; from 5&ndash;7 in 1970 to 3&ndash;6 in 1990.
Caribbean women have the fewest children, and in Cuba the average is 1.7.
So what are women doing to help themselves?
The problem of lack of time has been eased to some degree by the setting up of communal kitchens like those in Lima, Peru.
These enable women to spend more time working for gain, increasing the family income.
Women are being encouraged to set up their own small co-operatives, such as Saptagram in Bangladesh, with capital donated by agencies like Oxfam.
It consisted of 10&ndash;15 women who trade various goods.
Their main problem was breaking cultural taboos about women attending markets unaccompanied and trading alone.
This was solved by setting up the first stall run by the eldest most respected woman in the village.
They gained respect and money, and began to branch out.
This attracted the attention of the local landowning family who were not at all happy with this and threatened the founders.
The dispute was settled and they started travelling right through Bangladesh.
Their husbands objected at first, but soon stopped when the money started coming in and anyway a quarter of the women were on their own, who had been abandoned or divorced.
Problems encountered included rape and wife beating.
They decided they couldn't do much about the rape, but they dealt with the wife beating by publicly humiliating and parading the culprits!
The organisation now has around 300,000 women in it.
In addition to trading, the women go to cities to demonstrate against domestic violence or to show solidarity with women working in the poor conditions in textiles factories.
The women have become more feminist in their outlook and this has helped them to stand up against the men of the villages and take a firm stance in their lives.
This suggests feminism is crucial to attain women's real  and  recognised participation in development, and that it is the way forward for women's development.
Men are seen as the enemy and are fought through re-education away from the colonialist ideas that women should be quiet and biddable.
The energy to be found in projects of this type is dissipated by the IMF and World Bank strangle-hold on developing countries, which means that wages are kept low.
So although agencies can now see what sort of approach they should be making in women's development policy, and are looking at their lives in their entirety &mdash; not just as baby machines, the agencies are restricted by the IMF and World Bank conditions in what they can do.
The IMF emphasis on export-oriented policies has increased women's participation in cash crop production at the expense of those who are subsistence farmers.
In short foreign debts must be cancelled.
African women see no point in being integrated into Western-influenced developments in which they have no say and see that strong social movements with social cohesion between men and women interested in equality and re-distribution of wealth are required.
Women themselves feel they are the group most at the mercy of current development strategies and are willing and keen to create their own people-centred, self-sufficient development schemes.
All they need is the support of the West. 
Essay VI
REVISIONISM &mdash; THE MOVE TOWARDS SYNTHESIS
A
i)
&equo; The principle of spheres of interest&equo; means an acceptance of the division of European countries between the causes of Capitalism and Communism.
&equo; Europe's main economic wounds&equo; refers to the destruction of industry and agriculture and hence the economy brought about by World War II.
&equo; Police Governments&equo; refers to the Western interpretation of the strict governments set up by the Soviet Union in the countries in Eastern Europe within  its  sphere of interest.
&equo; The Berlin Blockade&equo; refers to an episode in the Cold War when the Russians closed all rail, road and air links with the Western half of Berlin, in retaliation for the West's imposition of a new currency in West Germany.
&equo; The policy of containment&equo; refers to a period between 1946 and 1949 when the Western powers had decided that a stalemate had been reached, with the Soviet Union and that the power of communism had ceased to grow and expand.
Europe felt it had contained this communist menace within itself.
A ii)
The Second World War was different from the previous wars in that the Soviets as the occupying power, were imposing their ideology on the people they had taken control of in Eastern Europe.
They were taking over forcefully, changing the social system and controlling people.
Most other wars prior had been over land or religion, this was over ideology.
A iii)
The Stalinist system can be said to be &bquo;Based on a state of siege mentality&equo;.
This is because he asked from the people a level of commitment that meant even in peacetime they were subjected to strict rule.
Russia felt under threat from attack constantly, and the Russian people had many sacrifices demanded on them, and were kept lean and hungry.
A iv)
The Statement &bquo;The Soviet Union refused to withdraw from Persia and put growing pressure on Turkey&equo;, describes how Stalin was desperate to secure the Soviet Union from attack from Europe and Asia.
Iran (Persia) and Turkey were of great strategic importance to the Iron curtain countries because of their borders with Russia.
A v)
The statement &bquo;there was a tendency to view largely in military terms a struggle that was essentially political in nature&equo; describes how the West viewed Marxism as a military struggle in accordance with Marx's prediction of revolution.
The West saw revolution coming through military struggle, misunderstanding that the appeal of Communism was sociological and thus the struggle was political.
Communism was about equal rights and division of land, appealing to the poor and the oppressed.
B)
Laquer  refers  to the Reformation because of   certain similarities between the problems caused by the Reformation and the Cold War.
Like the Reformation, the Cold War caused a split within Europe.
In the Reformation this had been North-South between Protestants and Catholics.
Now it was East-West between Communism and Capitalism.
The religious intolerance of the Reformation became Political intolerance in the Cold War &mdash; a hate of  each other's  ideology.
The Reformation however, also caused &bquo;hot&equo; wars in Europe, whereas the Cold War avoided this.
C)
Co-operation with the West by the Soviet Union may be said to put the entire political structure of the Soviet Union in jeopardy because
i)
Stalin's entire system was based on hostility to the West and capitalism.
ii)
The Soviet people could only be made to make sacrifices if Stalin had the threat of capitalism.
iii)
Co-operation would have meant Stalin liberalising his rule, the people would have demanded more freedom from the State.
D)
There could be said to be a &bquo;Structural crisis&equo; for Europe over its position in the World in the immediate post-war period because it had become as Churchill said &bquo;A rubble heap, a charnel house, a breeding ground of pestilence and hate&equo;.
This was because once economic stability had been regained it was doubtful whether Europe would ever become the significant world power it had once been.
World War II had shown America and Russia to be the important world political powers.
Europe had been divided by these two into spheres of influence and had been weakened as a result.
E)
Laquer's theories for the causes of the Cold War are
Theory 1 &mdash; Many in the West felt that the presence of police governments in the West did not represent what the people of Europe had fought for &mdash; they had been fighting for freedom of speech and democracy and the communist presence meant they had failed.
They feared as Truman did, that the Russians would cause another war unless dealt with in a firm manner.
Theory 2 &mdash; The West had overreacted to the communists through fear.
The Communists, critics argued, were merely in search of political stability, and security and were not attempting a world takeover.
Theory 3 &mdash; That the West had been too lax in the post-war years and had blind faith in the hope that the unity achieved after the first World War would be re-kindled.
Essay VII
Urban Research
Total Aim
The aim of the investigation was to investigate how land-use changes with distance from the centre of a city and to thus determine which model of urban structure best fits Nottingham.
Aim 1
Firstly the general observation of land-use change from the centre of Nottingham, in the determination of the limits of the Central Business District or CBD.
METHOD
The differences were observed and noted from journeys out of Nottingham via the main roads leading out of the centre of the city.
The main routes chosen were
Derby Road
Mansfield Road
Carrington Street
Carlton Road
RESULT
The information was pooled and the following results emerged and were recorded (see fig 1) 
The CBD was distinguished by a dominance of shops and offices which was followed by an area of mixed or changed land-use, showing signs of transition which was difficult to give a name to.
Aim 2
To delimit (find extent of) the CBD using more quantifiable methods than the general observation.
METHOD
Various methods may be used to delimit the CBD and these include
1)
Building use
2)
Building height
3)
Pedestrian count
1)
Building use
This is by general observation as described in Aim 1
2)
Building height
May be recorded by drawing a profile of a major route out of the city, noting the changes in height of the buildings from the centre out.
3)
Pedestrian count
This was made in the following way.
The route chosen was Mansfield Road, and starting at the North-East corner of Market Square, the count was made for 2 mins every 200 yards up Clumber Street, Milton Street and Mansfield Road.
This continued until a drop-off in the number of pedestrians was found and was then recorded on a graph and in a table.
RESULTS
1)
Building use &mdash; these were the same as for Aim 1 with an estimated extent of the CBD.
2)
Building height &mdash; although a profile was not made, it was observed that the further into the centre, the higher the buildings got, due to the high price of land in the centre of the CBD.
This was coupled with an increase in building density towards the centre, fewer open spaces and a mixture of older buildings and new shopping and office complexes.
These factors together show the &bquo;Bid-Rent&equo; Curve, with the high land values in the centre of the City and land values decreasing rapidly at the edge of the CBD.
3)
The Pedestrian count &mdash; the results of the count taken from the North-East corner of Old Market Square and up the Mansfield Road, showed a notable drop-off at Bluecoat Street/York House, which means a reduction in people using this route.
This suggests that the CBD ends around here and not as previously observed, at Forest Road East.
One indicator of this is that there is a branch of Lloyds Bank at this point and after this the shops are generally a mixture of restaurants and speciality shops (see fig 2).
AIM 3
Can other zones be identified?
If so what can we call the second zone if we consider the CBD as the first?
METHOD
Various models of urban structure were looked at, and the possibility of applying the Burgess model and using the &bquo;Transitional Zone&equo; as the second zone.
The transitional zone in Burgess' model, consists of mixed and changing land-use, with terrace housing being encroached upon by light industry.
RECORDING
A land-use survey was made on a route out of the city centre &mdash; in this case Mansfield Road, and the land use and building use were noted on a rough map (see fig 3).
This information was then transferred to a new map using Briggs' Key to give an impression of where the second zone might possibly be (fig 4).
RESULTS
The information was then pooled and the information was transferred to a map (see fig 5).
CONCLUSION/EVALUATION
There was very definitely evidence of a zone in transition and these were marked as limits on the map, by observation of where the CBD finished and where there was a mixture of houses, shops and offices before the area became wholly residential.
By linking these limits according to the pattern of the street layout, bearing in mind that roads were laid out in a grid-pattern in the 19th C and in cul-de-sacs, crescents and curves in the 20th C, we could see the growth patterns from the centre of Nottingham outwards.
After the Cemetery, there are a large number of extensive private houses in their own grounds, and this suggests an city boundary with the expensive houses closer to the countryside.
As the city has grown it has almost swallowed up Carrington, and Sherwood and there have been further houses built between the city and Carrington making distinction between the districts difficult.
The biggest anomaly is the residential Park district of Nottingham, which consists of high-class, extensive housing but is right in the centre of the town, below the castle.
This is unusual for a city, because of the normal desire of the wealthy to live outside the city.
AIM4
Is there evidence for the rest of the Burgess Model?
METHOD
A land use and growth map was used in conjunction with the evidence so far gathered, and was compared with the Burgess Model.
This consists of concentric circles defining the limits of different groups of housing (see fig 6).
These are as follows:
1)
CBD &mdash; Central Business District, discussed earlier.
2)
Transition zone &mdash; mix of old housing and light industry.
3)
Low class housing &mdash; inner city-type housing.
4)
Medium class housing &mdash; higher quality, semi's etc
5)
High class housing &mdash; on outskirts for richer commuters etc
RESULTS
Firstly, it must be noted that Burgess created his model in 1924.
Burgess himself stated that  its  creation was specific to one city &mdash; Chicago, however even then it can be seen as too simplistic.
It suggests zones are well defined &mdash; which they rarely are.
These zones may be made up of a mixture of land uses.
Transport and edge of city shopping centres were not taken into account because they did not exist.
The oldest housing is not always near the City centre.
In comparing Nottingham to this model, some major differences may be seen.
The Park is an estate of older high-class housing, right in the centre of town &mdash; according to Burgess this should be newer and on the outskirts of town.
What you do have on the furthest extent of Nottingham, are the council estates of Rise Park, Bestwood Park, and Top Valley in the North.
In the city centre however, St Anne's, Radford and Sneinton are all former slum areas which are consistent with Burgess' low class residential zone.
Interestingly, at the time of Burgess' model, Sneinton and Radford were still on the outskirts of the city and this housing was for the workers at the Players, clothing, and Raleigh factories.
CONCLUSION
That Burgess' model cannot really be accurately applied to Nottingham because it is too rigid in its form.
US cities are different from British cities in that,  housing  goes down a long chain of ownership, becoming more downgraded with each owner, because the wealthy continually build new houses.
This is different in England, where districts remain virtually unchanged in social composition.
AIM 5
This was to look at another model to try to assess which model suits Nottingham best.
METHOD
The Ullmann-Harris multiple nuclei model was assessed.
Multiple nuclei describes a big city that has expanded and absorbed small towns and villages and has thus created outlying service areas.
The model was tried using Nottingham.
RESULT
(see fig 7) This can be applied much more easily because it is not rigidly defined in the way that Burgess' model is.
The different sectors are like jigsaw pieces and can be moved around to fit the particular city being dealt with.
There is a greater variety of descriptions to apply to the different areas this model takes into account outlying business districts which Burgess' did not.
Towns like Sherwood, Arnold and Beeston, have to a certain extent been absorbed by the City and this is visible in the application of the model.
CONCLUSION
That Ullmann-Harris model can be fitted quite nicely to Nottingham, because it does allow for anomalies such as the Park, and is flexible in  its  approach.
It takes into account that modern cities have grown from several points, not one and because of this growth and the resulting congestion in the city itself, these nuclei develop out of town shopping centres.
OVERALL VIEW
Of the models looked at, the Ullmann-Harris model seems to be most adaptable to the layout of Nottingham as it is.
Nottingham can be seen however to have originally developed from the centre, by looking at the development map of the city.
It is only in the last 40 years with the growth of commuting that the towns on the outskirts &mdash; like say Arnold &mdash; have developed and grown.
So the  flexibility  of the model makes it the easiest to apply, but the assumption that Nottingham has grown as a Multiple nuclei model may be incorrect.
Essay VIII
Reviving the inner city in Bristol
1 PROBLEMS
The main priorities for community and economic development in the inner Bristol waterside area must first be looked at when deciding how to improve the area.
First, we must look at the present.
The area contains much sub-standard terraced housing which is in need of repair.
There are many derelict and run-down houses and empty spaces where houses have had to be pulled down for safety.
There is much derelict land and many decaying industrial sites, all creating dangerous playgrounds for gangs of children and eyesores for residents.
This discourages people from taking pride in the area and attempting to improve their environment.
It means that even gardens are no longer cared for in the despair that is felt.
There are few jobs and unemployment stands at 24.3 per cent for males and 10.4 per cent for females compared to 12.5 and 6.8 respectively in the rest of Bristol.
This is creating an underclass, fuelled by poverty and deprivation.
There is a strong ethnic community and this causes friction in the community because of the lack of jobs.
There is also a lack of ready access and there are poor transport links, for a community where 68.4 per cent have no car.
The future must bring increased availability of housing and social facilities.
This must be coupled with the creation of an attractive environment, through the transformation of derelict sites.
This would attract industry and commerce, and hence bring about the creation of jobs.
However, in order for this to be successful, the transport network of the area must be greatly improved.
The Urban Development Corporation, are targeting four initiatives in the first phase of development, to bring jobs into the area.
They are, the encouragement and growth of the financial services sector, the increase in high technology industry, an increase and development of the leisure and tourism industries and the nurturing of the biotechnology research based at Bristol and Bath.
Through these they hope to breathe new life into the inner cities.
2 CONFLICTS
The establishment of an Urban Development Corporation, created many conflicts in Bristol.
The UDC is controlled by the Department of the Environment and not the local council and this was the major area of conflict.
The Labour controlled council did not like the Tory government intervening, and butting in on its own inner city policy and development plans.
The council could also not understand why Bristol had been chosen as a UDC area.
Bristol is a fairly prosperous southern city with little council owned derelict land in the area of the UDC, situated in the second fastest growing region in Britain.
It has a shortage of office space, soaring property prices, huge traffic problems and relatively high unemployment.
The derelict land in the area chosen only amounts to 150 acres and of this, only 8 acres are council owned and this is out of a total UDC area of 1038 acres.
In addition, because there are only a very few, small sites available for redevelopment, new investors would be pushing out present occupiers if the development were to be economically viable.
The UDC seems to be intent on creating inner city science parks and industrial estates, which would push even more people out of the city &mdash; already the young people are moving out, leaving the middle-aged and the elderly.
The new developments would mean other businesses relocating outside the city, the increase in traffic in an already strained road network and an even worse deal for the residents.
In addition, the creation of the UDC has pushed up property prices in the area, making it even more difficult for the residents.
The UDC does not seem to appreciate that most of the derelict land in the area is in private hands and the underdevelopment is not the councils fault, but is actually due to the failure of government enterprise policies to encourage private  investors .
In addition, the UDC have not thought about the impact of their plans on the residents of the community, many of whom have been born and brought up there.
These people need unskilled jobs, pleasant homes and a better environment, not business parks.
3 THE DERELICT SITES
AREA A at Crew's hole, is 4 hectares currently owned by a housing developer, but because of the former industrial use as a Tar Distillery, may suffer from severe pollution problems.
Because of this it would not be suitable for housing because of the danger to the population and the expense necessary to clean it up.
The development of a business park on this site would not help the local community because of the need for unskilled/semi-skilled work, and it would do nothing to improve the environment for the residents of this area, with the use of the water frontage lost.
Likewise, small start up workshops would not be useful here because of the small revenue they attract.
They would become too expensive if the clean up were needed, and again, would not benefit the community widely.
If the site were to be developed privately, the investment may pay for the reclamation of the land which may be necessary.
Apart from this, the area would seem to be an excellent site for shopping, leisure and community facilities.
Firstly it is close to the residential areas of St George's and St Anne's, which would benefit from shopping and leisure facilities, especially in an area where 68.4 per cent of people have no car.
The proximity to these residential areas also provides a good workforce for the development and the construction work would also provide jobs for local residents.
The River frontage would also be exploited and used to good effect creating a pleasant &bquo;shopping experience&equo;, possibly even encouraging tourists into the area.
The area also has the advantage of the open spaces surrounding it, giving a spacious feel to the development.
The leisure facilities would provide activities to encourage the youngsters to remain in the area, and the addition of a small health centre would be invaluable for the elderly and the young mothers in the area.
If planning regulations allowed, a small number of starter flats could be built on top of the centre, providing housing for single people, this would ease the housing shortage in the area.
AREA B's main problem is the lack of access it accords.
This means that any development would have to create little traffic.
Surrounded on three sides by railway, it is not suitable for housing because of the large concentration of industry around that area.
Neither is it suitable for shopping, leisure and community facilities because of the lack of access.
The area would also be unsuitable for a business park, because it is only 1.8 hectares in size and the necessary development would be uneconomic, considering the amount of traffic that would have to be accommodated.
The best solution would seem to be the creation of start-up workshops for small businesses.
The nurturing of new businesses is very important, because today's small business may be tomorrow's Body Shop, and this is important for the economic development of the city.
This would encourage youngsters to try Young Enterprise and create their own jobs, and aid unemployment in the area.
Success would encourage young people to stay in the inner city instead of moving out of the area.
The workshops wouldn't generate too much traffic and the proximity to Temple Meads station and the rail network would be useful for despatching goods.
4 THE TRANSPORT NETWORK CRISIS
The area covered by the UDC has various transport weaknesses.
Many of these are brought about by the presence of the River Avon, cutting off areas, and the railway lines and sidings that criss-cross the area.
In addition the &bquo;boom&equo; felt in the town in 80's brought heavy traffic weight into the city.
In order to improve matters, money should be invested in the enlargement of the existing small, narrow and low bridges and on the building of more bridges at strategic sites.
The M32 links should be developed to increase the access to the rest of the country, to aid the creation of new business in the area.
The present roads should be widened and their quality improved and a ring-road link should be incorporated to help circulation of traffic.
The introduction of a light rail link or tram system should be considered &mdash; especially in an area where a large  percentage  have no car.
The public transport network should also be improved to encourage people to use this instead of a car and a park and ride system might be introduced to keep traffic out of the centre.
These measures would help to open up the UDC area, and encourage more people to live and work in the area.
5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENT
The UDC could be improved environmentally in several ways.
One way would be to concentrate all the industrial activity in the region around the railways, in the west of the region.
The underused/unused land to the east, along the water front should be used for new housing.
These two actions would provide a separation of industrial and residential areas to a degree, creating a better environment.
The run-down housing stock should be demolished and redeveloped after people have been moved into the new and attractive riverside developments, built by the council.
The open spaces in the north-north east of the area should be made into parkland and sports fields created for leisure activities.
In addition a new community school and music venue should be built to attract young families, in order to revitalise the population.
The railways should be cleaned up, and the embankments declared nature reservations.
More trees should be planted along roads and in parks and play facilities for children should be created.
These changes will help to rebuild a fragmented community and create an environment suitable for children to grow up in.
Essay IX
A Comparison of Girls' Comics from 1983 and 1993
AIM
The aim of this observation was to study the changes, if any, in the role and content of girls comic papers over a period of ten years.
Two editions of one comic were compared, a &bquo;BUNTY&equo; from 1983 and one from 1993.
INTRODUCTION
&bquo;Bunty&equo; was first published in 1958, when the picture paper market was at a boom.
These comics were widely read by middle class children, and amongst them were such notable worthies as The Dandy , The Beano , and The Eagle .
The stories in these comics reflected the social attitudes and aspirations of the times.
In the case of girls&equo; comic, they dealt with boarding schools a la Angela Brazil, stories of ballerinas, horses and adventures by the sea.
In this they reflected the  children's  literature of the time as created by authors such as Noel Streatfield, Christine Pullien-Thompson and Enid Blyton.
Characters were always white, middle to upper class and were representative of the British &bquo;stiff upper lip&equo; and &bquo;playing the game&equo; attitudes.
The good always overcame the evil.
The poor, when portrayed, were usually &bquo;rescued&equo; or adopted somehow, alternatively they turned out to be long lost daughters of land-owners, princes, or millionaires, stolen at birth by gypsies.
Over the years, many of these papers have dropped in popularity, possibly because of their unwillingness to change their stories.
As a result, many of them have fallen by the wayside or have been merged.
THE COMICS
BUNTY January 15 1983 age 7&ndash;12 approx 14p
Published by D C Thomson Ltd
Bunty is a weekly comic.
This edition happens to be Bunty's 25th Anniversary edition.
There is normally a strip on the front cover, about the comic's namesake, Bunty, and the pranks and scrapes she gets into.
The back page has a strip called Haggis, which is about a black highland terrier and his adventures.
This is accompanied by a cut-out wardrobe and figure of Bunty to stick onto card and play with.
The stories, to my mind were always better in Bunty than in other comics, and this is probably why it has continued without merger, where others have failed.
The normal overload of ponies, ballerinas and school girls is not to be found here.
They do exist, but not all at once.
Stories of events in occupied countries during the Second World War, such as The Travelling Winstons, extend the range of the adventure story, as does the story of Flopear the space-ship  come  rabbit.
In a sense you can see they have tried to introduce stories which would normally be  &bquo;boy's&equo; stories , and have adapted them to appeal to girls.
All the stories are drawn and there are none of the photo stories which are to be found in the magazines for older girls of the time.
The format is A4 on newsprint, and is mainly black and white, with colour covers, keeping costs low.
At the top of each page is a comment about Bunty, such as &bquo;Fourteen pence well spent &mdash; on hours of content &mdash; that's &bquo;BUNTY&equo;&equo; or a bit of advice on safety, &bquo;Don't forget girls, never accept lifts from strangers!&equo;.
This is an interesting and useful way of using the pages and is not apparent in any other girls&equo; comic of the period.
The predominance of white, middle-class characters, is disappointing, although I do recall a ballet story with black dancers &mdash; strangely enough around the time of the tv series &bquo;Fame&equo;!
The language of the comic is an interesting feature.
Where a character is obviously working class, such as in &bquo;It Takes Two to Tango&equo;, where the heiress' dancing partner is a bit of &bquo;rough&equo;, the dialogue is written as Cockney!
The majority of the writing is standard  English , with no swear words or slang and sounds like received pronunciation.
BUNTY April 1993 age 7&ndash;12 approx 45p
Published by D C Thomson Ltd
Bunty has survived another ten years without merger, unlike Mandy and Judy, and is now 35!
There are about three comics like this left available to girls now &mdash; in 1983 there were at least six.
This suggests a major drop in popularity, and it would be interesting to look at the circulation figures.
It is now a magazine and has a magazine format of just over A4 size.
The paper is now glossy and the cover has a fashion model on front and a pin-up of a teen heart-throb on the back.
All stories are now drawn in colour or are photo stories.
Some of the original stories and characters remain.
&bquo;The Four Marys&equo;, for example, are still in the 3rd Form of St Elmos, and despite new haircuts for them and their arch enemy Mabel, remain the same.
Obviously, the name Mabel feels a bit dated, but they have managed to update it pretty well.
The huge drafty dorms of ten years ago have been replace with study bedrooms, and the Four Marys no longer wear school uniform all the time and appear to have lost their hats as well!
The other boarding school story is a photo-story, and shows that headmistresses have got a lot younger since I was at school &mdash; and a lot nicer!
But they are still single sex boarding schools.
&bquo;The Comp&equo; goes  some way  to redressing the balance.
It portrays a mixed comprehensive, with pupils who have divorced parents and step parents.
In this edition they are all on the school outward bound course, and experience crushes on instructors and fellow pupils as well as the usual pillow fights and midnight feasts!
There is a theme running through the magazine of crushes on gorgeous men, and mysterious romances with strange disappearing boys.
The flavour is altogether more lower middle class and middle middle class, rather than middle middle and upper middle.
One photo story called &bquo;Luv, Lisa&equo;, describes it perfectly.
The girls are dressed in baggy clothes, say &bquo;yeah&equo;, &bquo;wicked&equo; and call each other &bquo;wally&equo;.
They have a Philip Schofield fixation, and talk in slang all the time.
Most of the stories still feature close-knit two-parent, white families in work.
the only slight exception is &bquo;Marina&equo;, which deals with a girl coming to terms with her father's redundancy, and his setting up a new business.
The &bquo;Cosy Corner&equo; letters page, has been replaced with a horoscope column &mdash; which talks about romance and boys, and a more serious letters page.
There are also personality quizzes and features on girls at school in other countries.
The most noticeable feature is that there is still little or no evidence of multi-culturalism.
CONCLUSION
From examination of the two comics, it is really very difficult to see many major differences which have taken place.
The format and style are obvious ones.
The cheap and cheerful rag has become a glossy, colourful and stylish girls magazine, complete with the pin up and the agony column.
The school stories are still the major fodder of the magazine, if only because it is something universal to everyone in this country.
There are no ballet stories to be found in the 1993 version of the magazine however.
Could this be because ballet lessons are now a very middle-class thing, like ponies?
What can be seen is that young girls are growing up far more quickly, and expect to be treated like adult earlier these days.
They want photo stories, tales of holiday romances, horoscopes and advice columns as well as free gifts of make-up and jewellery.
There are still no signs of multi-culturalism to be found which is disappointing and worrying &mdash; surely the publishers realise we live in a multi-racial society?
By failing to provide stories for a significant proportion of the population, are they not digging themselves a grave?
It would be a shame, but if the balance is not redressed, I would be surprised if Bunty were around in another 10 years.
Essay X
Was the Role of Women in the armies of the English Civil Wars significant?
Did it improve the lot of 17th Century women?
Women in most societies have been undervalued and have had little freedom in their own destinies, at sometime or another.
The role of women in the English Civil Wars is interesting, because the fact that nearly everyone in the country took sides either for Parliament or for the King, and all able-bodied men would be recruited and this meant that women were left without protection, and had to survive somehow.
Women took this opportunity to broaden their horizons, and many of the women of the English Civil War distinguished themselves by great acts of heroism.
But did this new found freedom last and did it cause an improvement in their lot?
At the beginning of the 17th century, woman was widely agreed to be the weaker of the two sexes.
Even in the age of Elizabeth I, although the monarch was well versed in Latin and Greek, women were considered inferior in intellectual ability to men.
Indeed, one school of thought believed that the female brain was biologically different from that of the male.
Consequently women's education was seen as unimportant, and whilst her brothers were tutored and sent to Oxford, the merchant's or Lord of the Manor's daughter would learn to read, to write and do household accounts and still-room skills, as well as plain sewing and embroidery.
Women were still seen as a valuable commodity, to be passed from father to husband, and at the accession of James I, any property a woman might hold would immediately become her husbands on marriage.
There was no form of contraception and many women would spend their entire adult lives pregnant and would probably die in child-birth.
A woman would quite likely have ten or twelve children, several miscarriages and still-births only to see about half her children die from common childhood ailments.
Women were very definitely second-class citizens.
In 1642 the First English Civil War broke out.
The fabric of society collapsed, as people sided with the King or Parliament.
Brothers turned against brother, and married women could find themselves in opposition to their own family, in duty to their husband.
As the fighting began, women found themselves in a dilemma.
They could either follow their husbands into battle, taking their children with them, or they could stay at home, unprotected and unsupported and wait for the pillaging Parliamentarians or the papist Royalists to capture them and confiscate their property.
The poorer women especially had little choice but to follow their husbands and sweethearts into battle.
Women of course, were considered to lack courage as well as intelligence, however the war threw up many &bquo;Great Heroicks&equo; of the weaker sex.
One such was the Countess of Portland, who at Carisbrook Castle &bquo;declared she would fire the first cannon&equo; rather than surrender.
The  camp followers  of the English Civil War, were a curious group.
They might be from almost any walk of life from whore to female preacher, and would follow their army (or any army in some cases) throughout the campaigns.
As part of the baggage  train  that followed the army, supplying support, women would nurse, launder for, comfort and feed the troops.
Their support role was of vital importance and they would be paid for their work, allowing them to keep themselves and their children.
It was better to be with their husbands and earning their keep, however difficult and dangerous the situation than to be left to the charity of the Parish.
Nearly every band of  camp followers  probably had a group of whores in it.
Whores would sometimes don men's apparel, leading to Charles I to issue an order forbidding it, because it now made whores more difficult to detect, but this was generally ignored by the soldiery.
Whores however spread diseases and could be treated harshly.
One who had followed the King's army from London to Coventry was &bquo;taken by the soldiers, and first led about the city then set in a pillory, after in a cage then ducked in a river, and at last banished the city&equo;.
The majority of the  camp followers  were however, good honest women who were the wives and sweethearts of the troops.
They would look after the wounded and use their still-room skills to try to contain the multitude of diseases such as consumption and fevers, that would follow a travelling army.
Others might be pedlars, moving between the factions selling wares.
After the fighting had ceased women would go out and scavenge amongst the bodies, removing useful clothing and equipment which could be passed on to others, They became very skilful in preparing food with few resources, relying on the plants and small animals in the area they were camped.
However there were great risks associated with  camp following , and after a battle or siege, the women of the losing side would be treated very harshly.
Although rape and looting were technically crimes according to both armies rules of conduct, the commanders considered it a necessity to &bquo;cleanse&equo; their enemies of their women.
One of the worst examples of bad treatment of  camp followers , is that of the Battle of Naseby.
the Rev. Mastin in his &bquo;History of the Rebellion&equo;, reports &bquo;The enemy left no manner of cruelty unexercised that day; and in the pursuit killed about 100 women,  whereof  some were the wives of  officers  of quality&equo;.
Other sources say the reason for the massacre was that the women were believed to be Irish whores, armed to fight.
In fact the women were mainly wives of Welsh and English soldiers, and some high-ranking officers wives, who were preparing an evening meal.
They may have tried to defend themselves with cooking implements and when begging for mercy used prayers in welsh which may have sounded &bquo;foreign&equo; to the attackers.
Whores and suspected whores would be cut to stop their trading and preachers would be executed as traitors or witches.
Skilled female doctors would also be executed and witches.
When all else failed, or it simply appealed to her a woman could always turn to the ranks for employment.
Sometimes, devoted wives or sweethearts would dress in man's attire in order to seek out their loved one, disappearing into the maelstrom of the war.
The number of &bquo;Gallant She-Souldiers&equo; involved in the ECW is difficult to calculate because of their disguise.
Their detection normally came about as a result of the appearance of a child!
One example being &bquo;Mr Clarke&equo;, who was just as good at firing musket or beating a drum, until the appearance of a &bquo;pretty son&equo; undid her disguise.
On being asked by her/his commander why he had become so fat, she replied &bquo;'TIS strong beer and tobacco which is the cause of that&equo;.
Women could drum and handle pistols and the soldiers swords were not particularly long or heavy and would have presented no problems.
Halberds would also be easy enough to manage, and although the pike was normally eighteen feet long and made of ash, there are records of women engaging successfully in pike-pushes.
The women in the ranks were generally accustomed to hard manual labour with scythes and ploughs and would have had the physical strength and tenacity to wield weapons.
One notable later-day Boadicea was Lady Anne Cunningham, a fervent Calvinist who not only succeeded in scaring the English, but also her own son the Marquess of Hamilton when she rode into Berwick with a brace of pistols and daggers at her saddle, at the head of her troop of horse against Charles I. Her attendant women were obliged to become expert markswomen.
The  camp followers  however caused problems with the authorities.
An army passing through towns and villages would require places to billet its troops, and with the  camp followers  swelling the ranks, this became difficult.
In 1647, the army of Parliament passed through St Albans en route to London.
Although loyal the good people of St Albans were somewhat concerned with the sudden influx of 20,000 people.
This turned to despair when they discovered many male and female  camp followers  had not left with the army, but had decided to stay there.
There were many complaints about the number of people registering for charity, and the Burgesses ordered that &bquo;in future no stranger, journeyman or servant, single or married should remain in the borough longer than six days without giving account of himself to the Mayor&equo;.
In Stafford, soldiers were forbidden from bring their families into the town unless they had enough funds to keep them for a quarter of a year, due to the large number of  camp followers  registering for charity.
The aftermath of the war left many displaced persons, and towns would fine vagabonds for entering their portals.
Many ex-army tradeswomen set up in the brewing trade, opening licensed houses where they could.
This was naturally unpopular with the existing brewers and in Hertfordshire, new regulations were put in place, restricting the numbers of ale houses and their opening hours.
By the time of the Restoration in 1660, the country was beginning to get back to normal.
The husbands had returned, and despite their experiences in the war, women were once again the &bquo;weaker vessel&equo;.
The lot of women definitely did not improve after the war.
The war years had certainly elevated their position, but this was to be only temporary, and at the end of the 17th Century women were as badly off as if the war had never happened, worse in fact because their position declined after the war.
There was an improvement in the literacy levels amongst women, but they were handicapped by the fact that they were generally not taught Latin.
This meant they could be midwives or nurses, but not doctors.
Women were also handicapped by the constant cycle of pregnancy and childbirth to which they had to resign themselves.
Women were still expected to &bquo;love, honour and obey&equo; their husbands and were not allowed to decide their own destinies.
There were of course exceptions such as Mrs Cellier, mid-wife and women's champion who against all the odds managed to carve a niche for herself as a nurse, to hold her own whilst on trial at the Old Bailey, calmly storing in her pocket stones thrown at her whilst in the stocks and attempted to found a college of therapeutic midwifery.
In general however, women were sent back to their music and their embroidery and were told to be submissive.
The women in the armies of the English Civil Wars played a significant role, having shown great courage, determination and innovation.
Indeed, so had those left behind to defend their houses.
The nursing skills the  camp followers  brought with them, must have reduced the number of fatalities and the contribution made by those who donned male attire, and fought along side their men cannot be counted.
Women had proved they were neither cowards nor intellectually lacking.
It is sad to note then, that their lot did not improve substantially.
They again became the &bquo;weaker sex&equo;, who were delicate and fragile and could not cope with the strains of learning and would continue to be mere property to be traded at will.
On the death of Queen Mary in 1694, a sermon was preached noting how rare it was to find courage and heroism in a woman and relating this to the modesty and selfless nature of the late queen, in abasing herself before her husband.
Women appeared to have move down the scale in men's esteem, rather than up it. 
Essay XI
Some Theories of Child Development
As well as the Social-Learning approach to child development, there are the Psychoanalytic Approach -begun by Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud's development of this approach, and Piaget's and Kohlberg's theories of Moral Development.
Sigmund Freud, developed the technique of &bquo;free-association&equo;, to allow people to recall events and memories.
From these memories he developed a theory that there were three main stages in a child's development.
These were the Oral Stage, the Anal Stage and the Phallic Stage, and the Libido &mdash; a free floating sexual energy &mdash; caused the transition through these stages.
He also developed a theory about adult personality.
He said it was ruled by the Id &mdash; which is selfish, the Ego &mdash; which keeps the Id in check and in touch with reality, and by the Super-ego, which insists that social expectations and duties are fulfilled.
The Ego has to balance the Id and the Super-ego and keep them in check and this is the Psycho-Dynamic theory.
Some criticise aspects of his theories, for example that the first 5 years of childhood are all important and say that all years of childhood are vitally important.
Others feel that Freud used too few subjects to test his theories.
Anna Freud, Sigmund's daughter developed her father's ideas further, looking at children coping with their Id, Ego and Super-ego.
She looked at the &bquo;Ego defence mechanisms&equo;, that protect someone if their Id or Super-ego ask too much, and the way children will create imaginary friends to defend their Ego.
The Moral Development theory put forward by Piaget, was based on observations of children at play and clinical interviews by him.
He observed that a child's moral development passed through three main stages.
The first (up to 7/8 years) was moral realism and right and wrong in the child's eyes depended on what adults told him was right or wrong.
In the second (8&ndash;11 yrs), children were concerned about justice and things being fair for all.
In the third (11+), children realised that equality or fairness weren't always enough and you sometimes have to compensate for circumstance.
Piaget named this approach &bquo;moral realism&equo; and noted the shift during these 3 stages from heteronomous morality &mdash; dependent on external rules, to autonomous morality &mdash; dependent on the individuals own principles of justice.
These theories were backed by Durkin and others.
Kohlberg's theory is similar to Piaget's, he said that Piaget did not go far enough.
He agreed that moral development was in 3 stages, but believed that these were divided into two parts.
The first stage is the premoral stage and the child starts off obeying to avoid punishment, and then moves onto obeying because it understands why it should.
In the second the &bquo;stage of conventional morality&equo;, the child judges people by their intentions in carrying out something, and then moves on to believe it is a persons duty to do something in a particular way.
At the third stage &mdash; the &bquo;stage of autonomous morality&equo;, the person considers how different societies have different rules and then develop a universal ethical idea, equating goodness with freedom.
Essay XII
&bquo;How far is it true to say that VIETNAM became a quicksand that sucked the USA into an unwanted war?&equo;
Before discussing the events in the Vietnam War it is first necessary to define the terms used in the question.
A &bquo;quicksand&equo; is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary, as &bquo;a bed of loose wet sand readily swallowing up heavy objects&equo;.
The quicksand in question was the boiling tumult of feeling and unrest in post-war Vietnam, brought about by the confusion caused by the split within the country.
It was powerful enough to swallow the heavy might of a world superpower, and to affect that country so greatly, that it dominated the politics in the States for over ten years and massive pressure was put on the government by the US people.
The question as to whether it was an unwanted war, will be dealt with later on.
First we must look at the situation in Vietnam.
Vietnam had been a French colony, before the Second World War, when it was invaded by Japan.
By 1945, there were various groups in existence, whose aim was to gain independence from France.
One of these was the Viet Minh, and it was led by Ho Chi Minh.
Ho Chi Minh was very determined Communist who wanted a united, independent, free and Communist Vietnam.
He wanted equality and freedom for all and believed no other country had the right to rule it.
Before the War, he had visited Europe, worked in the kitchen of a London hotel, and had then gone to Moscow.
In Moscow he became a convert to Marxism, having seen Capitalism in action in Europe.
On returning to Vietnam, he wasted no time in spreading his knowledge, and when the Japanese invaded, he set up a guerrilla resistance force, the Viet Cong, to fight the invaders.
In 1946 his group, the Viet Minh, took over North Vietnam.
France, frightened by the occupation of their country by Hitler, was determined to hold onto what was left of her empire.
At first the US was sympathetic with the Viet Minh, remembering her own struggle for independence from colonial rule.
But in 1949, after the Communist victory in China, Ho Chi Minh, became even more fervent in his Marxist beliefs and the US attitude changed.
The Americans were petrified of Communism, and believed Communists were aiming for world domination, via the &bquo;domino effect&equo; of one country after another falling to it.
The US stopped supporting Ho Chi Minh, believing him to be a puppet of the Chinese and instead gave their support to the French.
War broke out between the French and the Viet Minh forces.
France was to struggle badly and by 1954, the US was paying 80% of France's costs for the conflict in order to keep the French in there, knowing that France would withdraw its colonials if things got tricky, leaving an administrative void.
They had made their first venture into the quicksand that Vietnam was to become.
The French were crushed by the native forces and the Americans were forced to move in to take their place in order to safe-guard their investment, going a little deeper into the quicksand.
A right wing military Government was set up in the South as a result of the peace conference was convened at Geneva in 1954.
Vietnam was split into two independent states and elections were promised.
The North was to be Communist in ideology, and led by Ho Chi Minh and the South non-Communist and led by President Diem.
The US was determined to stop the domino effect by propping up South Vietnam with arms and money.
The Geneva Conference had been attended by many SE Asia countries who wished to see a split Vietnam.
The US did not want this and refused to sign.
The elections were never held and Ho Chi Minh and Diem remained in power.
The US continued to pour money into the South to keep it in power, again sinking deeper into the quicksand in the process.
Diem was a corrupt, greedy and self-interested leader, and treated the South Vietnamese very shabbily.
Despite this, the US had to continue to support him because they didn't want to get too involved and wanted South Vietnam to have a chance to make its own way.
The peasants however, were determined to get rid of Diem, and Ho Chi Minh took the opportunity to offer his help.
The US Secretary of State set up SEATO &mdash; the South East Asia Treaty Organisation &mdash; as a forum for discussion in South East Asia, in order to show it was not wielding its power without consultation, to try to help sort things out.
The US still didn't want to resort to military means and wanted the country to sort itself out.
But the Vietcong were already moving amongst the peasants of the South, who were now supporters of Communism.
For nine years the US supported the corrupt Diem regime, and did everything in their power to keep Communism at bay.
By 1963 the US had had enough of Diem and encouraged his overthrow, but the military power in the South was still in Deim's hands.
Diem was assassinated and in the space of 1962&ndash;64, South Vietnam had three presidents.
The US now felt obliged to dive whole heartedly into the Vietnam quicksand for a number of reasons.
Their fear of Communism and the domino effect, had touched the entire country, and the US citizens felt it was up to their country to sort out the &bquo;Reds&equo; once and for all.
The US was still reeling from the embarrassment of the Cuban Missile Crisis and needed to boost morale.
In addition there was the fear of puppet rulers &mdash; as they believed Ho Chi Minh to be.
In 1964, the US stance against Communism backfired, when the first Vietcong troops from the North, moved across the border.
It was obvious now to the World that America's involvement had driven Kennedy into supporting a corrupt, totalitarian government because the US felt that stopping Communism was more important than setting up a democratic government in South Vietnam.
Kennedy was assassinated.
The North then invaded the South and the Gulf of Tonkin incident followed.
The US claimed its battleship the Maddox, had been attacked.
A day later sixty-four bombers attacked North Vietnam.
On 2nd November 1964, North Vietnam attacked the American air base at Bien Hoa.
The US retaliated by mounting operations Flaming Dart and Rolling Thunder.
Johnson took the popular step of sending American troops in.
The US was now floundering in the depths of the quicksand and was being dragged down.
America realised this was not going to be an easy war to conclude.
By March 1965 3,000 US Marines had landed in the North and by May an additional 72,000 troops had been sent in.
South Vietnam was in complete chaos, caused by the fall of the corrupt government and in the North, they portrayed the US as foreign invaders, entering a country without the support of the native population.
The US troops were struggling against the Viet Cong.
The Americans had under estimated the fact that their troops were trained for battle in Europe, against the USSR in tank warfare &mdash; not jungle warfare in a semi-tropical climate.
They were convinced that their high-tech weapons would work against the peasant forces, however.
The Americans, in desperation to end their involvement in this pool of quicksand that was Vietnam, took to using defoliants such as Agent Orange and using Napalm  indiscriminately .
By 1969 250,000 US troops were in Vietnam.
Their determination to win at any cost, brought world criticism as the details of massacres such as Mai Lai emerged.
Johnson's popularity slumped dramatically.
When the troops had gone in 85% of the US population supported this.
There were now violent protests throughout the nation, calling for withdrawal.
In 1968 Nixon won the Presidential election, on his promise to end the war, but even he wanted victory for America and would not withdraw until this had been achieved.
He introduced the policy of &bquo;Vietnamization&equo;.
The South Vietnamese forces, the ARVN, were mustered, and armed by the US.
They would go in and fight their own battle and US forces would gradually be withdrawn.
The US army were now in a mess.
By 1971 morale was low and discipline was fragile, there was pressure to get the troops out.
They were tired of being outwitted by peasants and desperately wanted to go home.
In 1972 peace negotiations took place in Paris and finally on 23 January 1973, US troops were withdrawn.
America had managed to extract itself from the quicksand at last.
Vietnam was left to decide its own fate, and in 1975, North Vietnam took over the South and declared it a Communist state, causing thousands to flee from the South as boat people refugees.
No war is really a wanted war, and Vietnam was no exception, it was an unwanted war, but the US felt obliged to enter into it because of the fear it had of Communism.
They felt it was the duty of America to stop the world toppling to Communism and did everything they could to stop Ho Chi Minh.
They needed a boost because of the Cuban crisis and this seemed to be the opportunity, so they had little choice but to enter into the quicksand of the Vietnam War.
America could not believe that their elite fighting forces could be quashed by a bunch of peasants, and that was why they were so determined to win.
It was this desire to win that dragged and sucked them into the war.
They had invested millions of dollars and lives in this war, and this meant that they could not extract themselves easily.
Their pride was at stake and they could not believe it when they did not win, despite their use of horrific tactics.
America was broken.