CHAPTER_NN1 8_CRD Berkeley_NP0 
Going_VVG west_NN1 
In_PRP the_AT0 article_NN1 that_CJT Doudna_NP0 and_CJC her_DPS colleagues_NN2 wrote_VVD on_PRP their_DPS RNA_NN1 structure_NN1 discovery_NN1 ,_PUN which_DTQ was_VBD published_VVN in_PRP Sciencein_NP0 September_NP0 1996_CRD ,_PUN her_DPS name_NN1 is_VBZ listed_VVN last_ORD ,_PUN meaning_VVG that_CJT she_PNP was_VBD the_AT0 principal_AJ0 investigator_NN1 who_PNQ headed_VVD the_AT0 lab_NN1 ._SENT Jamie_NP0 Cate_NP0 's_POS name_NN1 is_VBZ listed_VVN first_ORD because_CJS he_PNP did_VDD the_AT0 most_AV0 important_AJ0 experiments_NN2 ._SENT By_PRP then_AV0 they_PNP were_VBD more_AV0 than_CJS scientific_AJ0 partners_NN2 ;_PUN they_PNP had_VHD become_VVN romantically_AV0 involved_AJ0 ._SENT After_PRP her_DPS divorce_NN1 was_VBD final_AJ0 ,_PUN they_PNP got_VVD married_VVN in_PRP the_AT0 summer_NN1 of_PRF 2000_CRD at_PRP the_AT0 Melaka_NP0 Beach_NN1 Hotel_NN1 across_PRP the_AT0 Big_AJ0 Island_NN1 of_PRF Hawaii_NP0 from_PRP Hilo_NP0 ._SENT Two_CRD years_NN2 later_AV0 ,_PUN they_PNP had_VHD their_DPS only_AJ0 child_NN1 ,_PUN Andrew_NP0 ._SENT 
By_PRP then_AV0 ,_PUN Cate_NP0 had_VHD become_VVN an_AT0 assistant_AJ0 professor_NN1 at_PRP MIT_NP0 ,_PUN so_CJS they_PNP were_VBD commuting_VVG between_PRP New_NP0 Haven_NP0 and_CJC Cambridge_NP0 ._SENT By_PRP train_NN1 it_PNP 's_VBZ less_AV0 than_CJS three_CRD hours_NN2 ,_PUN but_CJC for_PRP a_AT0 new_AJ0 couple_NN1 even_AV0 that_DT0 was_VBD tiresome_AJ0 ,_PUN so_CJS they_PNP decided_VVD to_TO0 see_VVI if_CJS they_PNP could_VM0 get_VVI appointments_NN2 in_PRP the_AT0 same_DT0 town_NN1 ._SENT 
Yale_NP0 tried_VVD hard_AJ0 to_TO0 keep_VVI Doudna_NN1 ,_PUN promoting_VVG her_PNP to_PRP an_AT0 important_AJ0 professorship_NN1 ._SENT To_TO0 resolve_VVI what_DTQ is_VBZ known_VVN as_PRP the_AT0 "_PUQ two-body_AJ0 problem_NN1 "_PUQ in_PRP academia_NN1 ,_PUN it_PNP offered_VVD Cate_NP0 a_AT0 position_NN1 as_CJS well_AV0 ._SENT However_AV0 ,_PUN Tom_NP0 Steitz_NP0 ,_PUN the_AT0 structural_AJ0 biologist_NN1 who_PNQ had_VHD shown_VVN them_PNP the_AT0 techniques_NN2 of_PRF cryocooling_NN1 ,_PUN was_VBD there_AV0 doing_VDG the_AT0 same_DT0 type_NN1 of_PRF research_NN1 Cate_NP0 wanted_VVD to_TO0 do_VDI ,_PUN and_CJC he_PNP felt_VVD that_DT0 would_VM0 crimp_VVI his_DPS chance_NN1 to_TO0 flourish_VVI ._SENT "_PUQ My_DPS direct_AJ0 competitor_NN1 was_VBD there_AV0 ,_PUN "_PUQ Cate_NP0 says_VVZ ._SENT "_PUQ He_PNP 's_VBZ a_AT0 great_AJ0 guy_NN1 ,_PUN but_CJC it_PNP would_VM0 be_VBI hard_AJ0 to_TO0 be_VBI in_PRP the_AT0 same_DT0 institution_NN1 ._SENT "_PUQ 
Harvard_NP0 offered_VVD Doudna_NP0 a_AT0 position_NN1 in_PRP the_AT0 Department_NN1 of_PRF Chemistry_NN1 and_CJC Chemical_AJ0 Biology_NN1 ,_PUN which_DTQ had_VHD just_AV0 been_VBN renamed_VVN and_CJC was_VBD growing_AJ0 ._SENT She_PNP went_VVD there_AV0 as_PRP a_AT0 visiting_AJ0 professor_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC on_PRP the_AT0 first_ORD day_NN1 the_AT0 dean_NN1 handed_VVD her_PNP an_AT0 offer_NN1 letter_NN1 for_PRP a_AT0 permanent_AJ0 position_NN1 ._SENT With_PRP Cate_NP0 at_PRP MIT_NP0 ,_PUN it_PNP seemed_VVD to_TO0 be_VBI an_AT0 ideal_AJ0 arrangement_NN1 ._SENT "_PUQ I_PNP was_VBD thinking_VVG how_AVQ great_AJ0 it_PNP was_VBD that_CJT I_PNP would_VM0 end_VVI up_AVP in_PRP Boston_NP0 ,_PUN back_AVP where_CJS I_PNP was_VBD in_PRP graduate_NN1 school_NN1 and_CJC had_VHD such_DT0 a_AT0 good_AJ0 time_NN1 ,_PUN "_PUQ she_PNP said_VVD ._SENT 
It_PNP is_VBZ interesting_AJ0 to_TO0 imagine_VVI how_AVQ her_DPS career_NN1 would_VM0 have_VHI been_VBN different_AJ0 if_CJS she_PNP had_VHD stayed_VVN at_PRP Harvard_NP0 ._SENT Along_AVP with_PRP MIT_NP0 and_CJC the_AT0 jointly_AV0 managed_VVN Broad_AJ0 Institute_NN1 ,_PUN the_AT0 university_NN1 was_VBD a_AT0 cauldron_NN1 of_PRF biotech_NN1 research_NN1 ,_PUN especially_AV0 in_PRP the_AT0 field_NN1 of_PRF gene_NN1 engineering_NN1 ._SENT A_AT0 decade_NN1 later_AV0 ,_PUN she_PNP would_VM0 find_VVI herself_PNX in_PRP a_AT0 race_NN1 to_TO0 develop_VVI CRISPR_NN1 into_PRP a_AT0 gene-editing_AJ0 tool_NN1 with_PRP various_AJ0 Cambridge-based_AJ0 researchers_NN2 ,_PUN including_PRP Harvard_NP0 's_POS George_NP0 Church_NN1 and_CJC the_AT0 men_NN2 who_PNQ would_VM0 become_VVI her_DPS bitter_AJ0 rivals_NN2 ,_PUN Feng_NP0 Zhang_NP0 and_CJC Eric_NP0 Lander_NN1 of_PRF the_AT0 Broad_AJ0 Institute_NN1 ._SENT 
Then_AV0 she_PNP got_VVD a_AT0 call_NN1 from_PRP the_AT0 University_NN1 of_PRF California_NP0 at_PRP Berkeley_NP0 ._SENT Her_DPS first_ORD reaction_NN1 was_VBD to_TO0 deflect_VVI any_DT0 offer_NN1 ,_PUN but_CJC when_CJS she_PNP told_VVD Cate_NP0 ,_PUN he_PNP was_VBD shocked_AJ0 ._SENT "_PUQ You_PNP should_VM0 call_VVI them_PNP back_AVP ,_PUN "_PUQ he_PNP said_VVD ._SENT "_PUQ Berkeley_NP0 is_VBZ nice_AJ0 ._SENT "_PUQ When_CJS he_PNP had_VHD been_VBN a_AT0 postdoctoral_AJ0 fellow_NN1 in_PRP Santa_NP0 Cruz_NP0 ,_PUN he_PNP had_VHD often_AV0 gone_VVN up_AVP to_PRP the_AT0 Lawrence_NP0 Berkeley_NP0 National_AJ0 Laboratory_NN1 ,_PUN which_DTQ was_VBD managed_VVN by_PRP the_AT0 university_NN1 ,_PUN to_TO0 do_VDI experiments_NN2 at_PRP its_DPS cyclotron_NN1 ,_PUN a_AT0 particle_NN1 accelerator_NN1 ._SENT 
When_CJS they_PNP visited_VVD the_AT0 campus_NN1 ,_PUN Doudna_NP0 was_VBD still_AV0 disinclined_AJ0 to_TO0 move_VVI there_AV0 ._SENT But_CJC Cate_NP0 became_VVD more_AV0 enthusiastic_AJ0 ._SENT "_PUQ I_PNP 'm_VBB more_DT0 of_PRF a_AT0 western_AJ0 guy_NN1 ,_PUN "_PUQ he_PNP says_VVZ ._SENT "_PUQ I_PNP found_VVD Cambridge_NP0 to_TO0 be_VBI uptight_AJ0 ._SENT My_DPS director_NN1 at_PRP the_AT0 time_NN1 always_AV0 came_VVD to_TO0 work_VVI in_PRP a_AT0 bow_NN1 tie_NN1 ._SENT I_PNP was_VBD happier_AJC at_PRP the_AT0 thought_NN1 of_PRF being_VBG at_PRP Berkeley_NP0 ,_PUN where_AVQ the_AT0 energy_NN1 level_NN1 was_VBD great_AJ0 ._SENT "_PUQ Doudna_NP0 liked_VVD the_AT0 fact_NN1 that_CJT Berkeley_NP0 was_VBD a_AT0 public_AJ0 university_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC she_PNP was_VBD easily_AV0 persuaded_VVN ._SENT By_PRP the_AT0 summer_NN1 of_PRF 2002_CRD ,_PUN they_PNP had_VHD moved_VVN ._SENT 
Their_DPS choice_NN1 of_PRF Berkeley_NP0 is_VBZ a_AT0 testament_NN1 to_PRP America_NP0 's_POS investment_NN1 in_PRP public_AJ0 higher_AJC education_NN1 ._SENT Its_DPS roots_NN2 stretch_VVB back_AVP to_PRP when_AVQ Abraham_NP0 Lincoln_NP0 ,_PUN in_PRP the_AT0 middle_NN1 of_PRF the_AT0 Civil_AJ0 War_NN1 ,_PUN thought_VVD public_AJ0 education_NN1 was_VBD important_AJ0 enough_AV0 that_CJT he_PNP pushed_VVD through_PRP the_AT0 Morrill_NP0 Land-Grant_AJ0 Act_NN1 of_PRF 1862_CRD ,_PUN which_DTQ used_VVD funds_NN2 from_PRP federal_AJ0 land_NN1 sales_NN0 to_TO0 establish_VVI new_AJ0 agriculture_NN1 and_CJC mechanical_AJ0 colleges_NN2 ._SENT 
Among_PRP those_DT0 was_VBD the_AT0 College_NN1 of_PRF Agricultural_AJ0 ,_PUN Mining_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC Mechanical_AJ0 Arts_NN2 near_PRP Oakland_NP0 ,_PUN California_NP0 ,_PUN founded_VVN in_PRP 1866_CRD ,_PUN which_DTQ two_CRD years_NN2 later_AV0 merged_VVN with_PRP the_AT0 nearby_AJ0 private_AJ0 College_NN1 of_PRF California_NP0 ._SENT It_PNP became_VVD the_AT0 University_NN1 of_PRF California_NP0 ,_PUN Berkeley_NP0 ,_PUN and_CJC grew_VVD into_PRP one_CRD of_PRF the_AT0 world_NN1 's_POS greatest_AJS research_NN1 and_CJC learning_NN1 institutions_NN2 ._SENT In_PRP the_AT0 1980s_CRD ,_PUN more_AV0 than_CJS half_DT0 of_PRF Berkeley_NP0 's_POS funding_NN1 came_VVD from_PRP the_AT0 state_NN1 ._SENT However_AV0 ,_PUN since_CJS then_AV0 Berkeley_NP0 ,_PUN like_PRP most_DT0 other_AJ0 public_AJ0 universities_NN2 ,_PUN has_VHZ faced_VVN reductions_NN2 ._SENT When_CJS Doudna_NP0 arrived_VVD ,_PUN state_NN1 funding_NN1 accounted_VVN for_PRP only_AV0 30_CRD percent_NN0 of_PRF Berkeley_NP0 's_POS budget_NN1 ._SENT In_PRP 2018_CRD ,_PUN state_NN1 funding_NN1 was_VBD cut_VVN again_AV0 ,_PUN and_CJC it_PNP amounted_VVD to_PRP less_AV0 than_CJS 14_CRD percent_NN0 ._SENT As_CJS a_AT0 result_NN1 ,_PUN Berkeley_NP0 's_POS undergraduate_NN1 tuition_NN1 for_PRP a_AT0 California_NP0 resident_NN1 in_PRP 2020_CRD was_VBD $_NN0 14_CRD ,_PUN 250_CRD per_PRP year_NN1 ,_PUN more_AV0 than_CJS triple_VVI what_DTQ it_PNP was_VBD in_PRP 2000._CRD Room_NN1 ,_PUN board_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC other_AJ0 fees_NN2 raised_VVD the_AT0 total_AJ0 cost_NN1 to_PRP around_AV0 $_NN0 36_CRD ,_PUN 264._CRD For_PRP an_AT0 out-of-state_AJ0 student_NN1 ,_PUN total_AJ0 costs_NN2 were_VBD around_AV0 $_NN0 66_CRD ,_PUN 000_CRD a_AT0 year_NN1 ._SENT 
RNA_NN1 interference_NN1 
Doudna_NP0 's_POS study_NN1 of_PRF RNA_NN1 structure_NN1 led_VVD her_PNP to_PRP a_AT0 field_NN1 that_CJT would_VM0 become_VVI unexpectedly_AV0 relevant_AJ0 later_AV0 in_PRP her_DPS career_NN1 :_PUN viruses_NN2 ._SENT Specifically_AV0 ,_PUN she_PNP was_VBD interested_AJ0 in_PRP how_AVQ the_AT0 RNA_NN1 in_PRP some_DT0 viruses_NN2 ,_PUN such_DT0 as_PRP coronaviruses_NN2 ,_PUN allow_VVB them_PNP to_TO0 hijack_VVI the_AT0 protein-making_AJ0 machinery_NN1 of_PRF cells_NN2 ._SENT During_PRP her_DPS first_ORD semester_NN1 at_PRP Berkeley_NP0 ,_PUN in_PRP the_AT0 fall_NN1 of_PRF 2002_CRD ,_PUN there_EX0 was_VBD an_AT0 outbreak_NN1 in_PRP China_NN1 of_PRF a_AT0 virus_NN1 that_CJT caused_VVD a_AT0 severe_AJ0 acute_AJ0 respiratory_AJ0 syndrome_NN1 (_PUL SARS_NP0 )_PUR ._SENT Many_DT0 viruses_NN2 are_VBB composed_VVN of_PRF DNA_NN1 ,_PUN but_CJC SARS_NP0 was_VBD a_AT0 coronavirus_NN1 that_CJT instead_AV0 contained_VVD RNA_NN1 ._SENT By_PRP the_AT0 time_NN1 it_PNP died_VVD out_AVP after_PRP eighteen_CRD months_NN2 ,_PUN it_PNP had_VHD killed_VVN close_AV0 to_PRP eight_CRD hundred_CRD people_NN0 around_PRP the_AT0 world_NN1 ._SENT It_PNP was_VBD officially_AV0 known_VVN as_PRP SARS-CoV_NP0 ._SENT In_PRP 2020_CRD ,_PUN it_PNP had_VHD to_TO0 be_VBI renamed_VVN SARS-CoV-1_AJ0 ._SENT 
Doudna_NP0 also_AV0 became_VVD interested_AJ0 in_PRP a_AT0 phenomenon_NN1 known_VVN as_PRP RNA_NN1 interference_NN1 ._SENT Normally_AV0 ,_PUN the_AT0 genes_NN2 encoded_VVN by_PRP the_AT0 DNA_NN1 in_PRP cells_NN2 dispatch_NN1 messenger_NN1 RNAs_NN2 to_TO0 direct_VVI the_AT0 building_NN1 of_PRF a_AT0 protein_NN1 ._SENT RNA_NN1 interference_NN1 does_VDZ just_AV0 what_DTQ the_AT0 name_NN1 implies_VVZ :_PUN small_AJ0 molecules_NN2 find_VVB a_AT0 way_NN1 to_TO0 mess_VVI with_PRP these_DT0 messenger_NN1 RNAs_NN2 ._SENT 
RNA_NN1 interference_NN1 was_VBD discovered_VVN in_PRP the_AT0 1990s_CRD ,_PUN partly_AV0 by_PRP researchers_NN2 who_PNQ were_VBD trying_VVG to_TO0 make_VVI petunias_NN2 more_AV0 purple_AJ0 by_PRP juicing_VVG up_AVP the_AT0 flower_NN1 's_POS color_NN1 genes_NN2 ._SENT But_CJC the_AT0 process_NN1 ended_VVD up_AVP suppressing_VVG some_DT0 of_PRF the_AT0 genes_NN2 ,_PUN leading_VVG to_PRP mottled_AJ0 and_CJC speckled_AJ0 petunias_NN2 ._SENT Craig_NP0 Mello_NP0 and_CJC Andrew_NP0 Fire_NN1 coined_VVD the_AT0 term_NN1 "_PUQ RNA_NN1 interference_NN1 "_PUQ in_PRP a_AT0 1998_CRD paper_NN1 and_CJC later_AV0 won_VVD the_AT0 Nobel_NP0 Prize_NN1 when_CJS they_PNP discovered_VVD how_AVQ the_AT0 phenomenon_NN1 works_VVZ in_PRP the_AT0 nematode_NN1 ,_PUN a_AT0 tiny_AJ0 worm_NN1 ._SENT 
RNA_NN1 interference_NN1 operates_VVZ by_PRP deploying_VVG an_AT0 enzyme_NN1 known_VVN as_PRP "_PUQ Dicer_NN1 ._SENT "_PUQ Dicer_NP0 snips_VVZ a_AT0 long_AJ0 piece_NN1 of_PRF RNA_NN1 into_PRP short_AJ0 fragments_NN2 ._SENT These_DT0 little_AJ0 fragments_NN2 can_VM0 then_AV0 embark_VVI on_PRP a_AT0 search-and-destroy_VVB mission_NN1 :_PUN they_PNP seek_VVB out_AVP a_AT0 messenger_NN1 RNA_NN1 molecule_NN1 that_CJT has_VHZ matching_AJ0 letters_NN2 ,_PUN then_AV0 they_PNP use_VVB a_AT0 scissors-like_AJ0 enzyme_NN1 to_TO0 chop_VVI it_PNP up_AVP ._SENT The_AT0 genetic_AJ0 information_NN1 carried_VVN by_PRP that_DT0 messenger_NN1 RNA_NN1 is_VBZ thus_AV0 silenced_VVN ._SENT 
Doudna_NP0 set_VVD about_AVP to_TO0 discover_VVI the_AT0 molecular_AJ0 structure_NN1 of_PRF Dicer_NN1 ._SENT As_CJS she_PNP had_VHD done_VDN with_PRP self-splicing_AJ0 RNA_NN1 introns_NN2 ,_PUN she_PNP used_VVD X-ray_NN1 crystallography_NN1 to_TO0 map_VVI its_DPS twists_NN2 and_CJC folds_NN2 ,_PUN which_DTQ she_PNP hoped_VVD would_VM0 show_VVI how_AVQ it_PNP worked_VVD ._SENT Until_CJS then_AV0 ,_PUN researchers_NN2 did_VDD not_XX0 know_VVI how_AVQ Dicer_NP0 was_VBD able_AJ0 to_TO0 cut_VVI RNA_NN1 into_PRP precisely_AV0 the_AT0 right_AJ0 letter_NN1 sequences_NN2 to_TO0 silence_VVI a_AT0 specific_AJ0 gene_NN1 ._SENT By_PRP studying_VVG the_AT0 Dicer_NN1 structure_NN1 ,_PUN Doudna_NP0 showed_VVD that_CJT it_PNP acted_VVD like_PRP a_AT0 ruler_NN1 that_CJT had_VHD a_AT0 clamp_NN1 at_PRP one_CRD end_NN1 ,_PUN which_DTQ it_PNP used_VVD to_TO0 grab_VVI on_AVP to_PRP a_AT0 long_AJ0 RNA_NN1 strand_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC a_AT0 cleaver_NN1 at_PRP the_AT0 other_AJ0 end_NN1 ,_PUN which_DTQ it_PNP used_VVD to_TO0 slice_VVI the_AT0 segment_NN1 at_PRP just_AV0 the_AT0 correct_AJ0 length_NN1 ._SENT 
Doudna_NP0 and_CJC her_DPS team_NN1 went_VVD on_AVP to_TO0 show_VVI how_AVQ a_AT0 particular_AJ0 domain_NN1 of_PRF the_AT0 Dicer_NN1 enzyme_NN1 could_VM0 be_VBI replaced_VVN in_PRP order_NN1 to_TO0 create_VVI tools_NN2 that_CJT would_VM0 silence_VVI other_AJ0 genes_NN2 ._SENT "_PUQ Perhaps_AV0 the_AT0 most_AV0 exciting_AJ0 finding_NN1 of_PRF this_DT0 study_NN1 is_VBZ that_CJT Dicer_NN1 can_VM0 be_VBI reengineered_AJ0 ,_PUN "_PUQ their_DPS 2006_CRD paper_NN1 noted_VVD ._SENT It_PNP was_VBD a_AT0 very_AV0 useful_AJ0 discovery_NN1 ._SENT It_PNP permitted_VVD researchers_NN2 to_TO0 use_VVI RNA_NN1 interference_NN1 to_TO0 turn_VVI off_AVP a_AT0 wide_AJ0 variety_NN1 of_PRF genes_NN2 ,_PUN both_AV0 to_TO0 discover_VVI what_DTQ each_DT0 gene_NN1 does_VDZ and_CJC to_TO0 regulate_VVI its_DPS activity_NN1 for_PRP medical_AJ0 purposes_NN2 ._SENT 
In_PRP the_AT0 age_NN1 of_PRF coronaviruses_NN2 ,_PUN there_EX0 is_VBZ another_DT0 role_NN1 that_CJT RNA_NN1 interference_NN1 may_VM0 play_VVI ._SENT Throughout_PRP the_AT0 history_NN1 of_PRF life_NN1 on_PRP our_DPS planet_NN1 ,_PUN some_DT0 organisms_NN2 (_PUL though_CJS not_XX0 humans_NN2 )_PUR have_VHB evolved_VVN ways_NN2 to_TO0 use_VVI RNA_NN1 interference_NN1 to_TO0 fight_VVI off_AVP viruses_NN2 ._SENT As_CJS Doudna_NP0 wrote_VVD in_PRP a_AT0 scholarly_AJ0 publication_NN1 back_AVP in_PRP 2013_CRD ,_PUN researchers_NN2 hoped_VVD to_TO0 find_VVI ways_NN2 to_TO0 use_VVI RNA_NN1 interference_NN1 to_TO0 protect_VVI humans_NN2 from_PRP infections_NN2 ._SENT Two_CRD papers_NN2 published_VVN in_PRP Sciencethat_NP0 year_NN1 gave_VVD strong_AJ0 evidence_NN1 that_CJT it_PNP might_VM0 work_VVI ._SENT The_AT0 hope_NN1 then_AV0 was_VBD that_CJT drugs_NN2 based_VVN on_PRP RNA_NN1 interference_NN1 might_VM0 someday_AV0 be_VBI a_AT0 good_AJ0 option_NN1 for_PRP treating_VVG severe_AJ0 viral_AJ0 infections_NN2 ,_PUN including_PRP those_DT0 from_PRP new_AJ0 coronaviruses_NN2 ._SENT 
Doudna_NP0 's_POS paper_NN1 on_PRP RNA_NN1 interference_NN1 appeared_VVD in_PRP Science_NN1 in_PRP January_NP0 2006._CRD A_AT0 few_DT0 months_NN2 later_AV0 ,_PUN a_AT0 paper_NN1 published_VVN in_PRP a_AT0 little-known_AJ0 journal_NN1 described_VVD a_AT0 different_AJ0 virus-fighting_AJ0 mechanism_NN1 that_CJT exists_VVZ in_PRP nature_NN1 ._SENT It_PNP was_VBD by_PRP an_AT0 obscure_AJ0 Spanish_AJ0 scientist_NN1 who_PNQ discovered_VVD the_AT0 mechanism_NN1 in_PRP microorganisms_NN2 like_PRP bacteria_NN2 ,_PUN which_DTQ have_VHB a_AT0 far_AV0 longer_AJC and_CJC even_AV0 more_AV0 brutal_AJ0 history_NN1 fighting_VVG viruses_NN2 than_CJS we_PNP humans_NN2 do_VDB ._SENT At_PRP first_ORD ,_PUN the_AT0 handful_NN1 of_PRF scientists_NN2 studying_VVG this_DT0 system_NN1 assumed_VVD that_CJT it_PNP worked_VVD through_PRP RNA_NN1 interference_NN1 ._SENT They_PNP would_VM0 soon_AV0 discover_VVI that_CJT the_AT0 phenomenon_NN1 was_VBD even_AV0 more_AV0 interesting_AJ0 ._SENT 
PARTTWOCRISPR_NN1 
The_AT0 scientist_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX0 study_VVI nature_NN1 because_CJS it_PNP is_VBZ useful_AJ0 ._SENT 
He_PNP studies_VVZ it_PNP because_CJS he_PNP takes_VVZ pleasure_NN1 in_PRP it_PNP ,_PUN and_CJC he_PNP takes_VVZ pleasure_NN1 in_PRP it_PNP because_CJS it_PNP is_VBZ beautiful_AJ0 ._SENT 
¡ªHenri_NP0 Poincar_NP0 ¨_NN0 ¦_NN0 ,_PUN Science_NN1 and_CJC Method_NN1 ,_PUN 1908_CRD 
CHAPTER9Clustered_NP0 RepeatsFrancisco_NP0 Mojica_NP0 
When_CJS Yoshizumi_NP0 Ishino_NP0 was_VBD a_AT0 student_NN1 at_PRP Osaka_NP0 University_NN1 in_PRP Japan_NP0 ,_PUN his_DPS PhD_NN1 research_NN1 included_VVD sequencing_VVG a_AT0 gene_NN1 in_PRP E_NP0 ._SENT colibacteria_NN1 ._SENT It_PNP was_VBD 1986_CRD ,_PUN and_CJC gene_NN1 sequencing_NN1 was_VBD a_AT0 laborious_AJ0 process_NN1 ,_PUN but_CJC he_PNP eventually_AV0 succeeded_VVD in_PRP determining_VVG the_AT0 1_CRD ,_PUN 038_CRD base_NN1 pairs_NN2 of_PRF DNA_NN1 that_CJT made_VVD up_AVP the_AT0 gene_NN1 in_PRP question_NN1 ._SENT In_PRP a_AT0 long_AJ0 paper_NN1 on_PRP the_AT0 gene_NN1 that_CJT he_PNP published_VVD the_AT0 following_AJ0 year_NN1 ,_PUN he_PNP noted_VVD in_PRP the_AT0 last_ORD paragraph_NN1 an_AT0 oddity_NN1 that_CJT he_PNP did_VDD not_XX0 consider_VVI important_AJ0 enough_AV0 to_TO0 mention_VVI in_PRP the_AT0 paper_NN1 's_VBZ abstract_AJ0 ._SENT "_PUQ An_AT0 unusual_AJ0 structure_NN1 was_VBD found_VVN ,_PUN "_PUQ he_PNP wrote_VVD ._SENT "_PUQ Five_CRD highly_AV0 homologous_AJ0 sequences_NN2 of_PRF 29_CRD nucleotides_NN2 were_VBD arranged_VVN as_PRP direct_AJ0 repeats_NN2 ._SENT "_PUQ In_PRP other_AJ0 words_NN2 ,_PUN he_PNP found_VVD five_CRD segments_NN2 of_PRF DNA_NN1 that_CJT were_VBD identical_AJ0 to_PRP each_DT0 other_NN1 ._SENT These_DT0 repeated_AJ0 sequences_NN2 ,_PUN each_DT0 twenty-nine_CRD base_NN1 pairs_NN2 long_AV0 ,_PUN were_VBD sprinkled_VVN between_PRP normal-looking_AJ0 sequences_NN2 of_PRF DNA_NN1 ,_PUN which_DTQ he_PNP called_VVD "_PUQ spacers_NN2 ._SENT "_PUQ Ishino_NP0 had_VHD no_AT0 idea_NN1 what_DTQ these_DT0 clustered_AJ0 repeats_NN2 were_VBD ._SENT In_PRP the_AT0 last_ORD line_NN1 of_PRF his_DPS paper_NN1 ,_PUN he_PNP wrote_VVD ,_PUN "_PUQ The_AT0 biological_AJ0 significance_NN1 of_PRF these_DT0 sequences_NN2 is_VBZ not_XX0 known_VVN ._SENT "_PUQ He_PNP did_VDD n't_XX0 pursue_VVI the_AT0 topic_NN1 ._SENT 
The_AT0 first_ORD researcher_NN1 to_TO0 figure_VVI out_AVP the_AT0 function_NN1 of_PRF the_AT0 repeated_AJ0 sequences_NN2 was_VBD Francisco_NP0 Mojica_NP0 ,_PUN a_AT0 graduate_NN1 student_NN1 at_PRP the_AT0 University_NN1 of_PRF Alicante_NP0 on_PRP the_AT0 Mediterranean_AJ0 coast_NN1 of_PRF Spain_NP0 ._SENT In_PRP 1990_CRD ,_PUN he_PNP began_VVD working_VVG on_PRP a_AT0 PhD_NN1 dissertation_NN1 on_PRP archaea_NN1 ,_PUN which_DTQ ,_PUN like_PRP bacteria_NN2 ,_PUN are_VBB single-cell_AJ0 organisms_NN2 without_PRP a_AT0 nucleus_NN1 ._SENT The_AT0 archaea_NN1 he_PNP was_VBD studying_VVG thrive_VVB in_PRP salt_NN1 ponds_NN2 that_CJT are_VBB ten_CRD times_NN2 saltier_AJC than_CJS the_AT0 ocean_NN1 ._SENT He_PNP was_VBD sequencing_VVG regions_NN2 that_CJT he_PNP thought_VVD might_VM0 explain_VVI its_DPS love_NN1 of_PRF salt_NN1 when_CJS he_PNP spotted_VVD fourteen_CRD identical_AJ0 DNA_NN1 sequences_NN2 that_CJT were_VBD repeated_VVN at_PRP regular_AJ0 intervals_NN2 ._SENT They_PNP seemed_VVD to_TO0 be_VBI palindromes_NN2 ,_PUN meaning_VVG they_PNP read_VVI the_AT0 same_DT0 backward_AJ0 and_CJC forward_AV0 ._SENT 
At_PRP first_ORD he_PNP assumed_VVD that_CJT he_PNP had_VHD screwed_VVN up_AVP the_AT0 sequencing_NN1 ._SENT "_PUQ I_PNP thought_VVD it_PNP was_VBD a_AT0 mistake_NN1 ,_PUN because_CJS sequencing_NN1 was_VBD hard_AV0 back_AVP then_AV0 ,_PUN "_PUQ he_PNP says_VVZ with_PRP a_AT0 hearty_AJ0 laugh_NN1 ._SENT But_CJC by_PRP 1992_CRD ,_PUN when_CJS his_DPS data_NN0 kept_VVD showing_VVG these_DT0 regularly_AV0 spaced_VVN repeats_NN2 ,_PUN Mojica_NP0 wondered_VVD if_CJS anyone_PNI else_AV0 had_VHD found_VVN something_PNI similar_AJ0 ._SENT Google_NP0 did_VDD not_XX0 yet_AV0 exist_VVI ,_PUN nor_CJC did_VDD online_AJ0 indexes_NN2 ,_PUN so_CJS he_PNP manually_AV0 sorted_VVD through_PRP citations_NN2 for_PRP the_AT0 word_NN1 "_PUQ repeat_NN1 "_PUQ in_PRP a_AT0 set_NN1 of_PRF Current_AJ0 Contents_NN2 ,_PUN a_AT0 printed_AJ0 index_NN1 of_PRF scholarly_AJ0 papers_NN2 ._SENT Because_CJS this_DT0 was_VBD in_PRP a_AT0 previous_AJ0 century_NN1 ,_PUN when_CJS very_AV0 few_DT0 publications_NN2 were_VBD online_AJ0 ,_PUN whenever_AVQ he_PNP found_VVD a_AT0 listing_NN1 that_CJT looked_VVD promising_AJ0 ,_PUN he_PNP had_VHD to_TO0 go_VVI to_PRP the_AT0 library_NN1 to_TO0 find_VVI the_AT0 relevant_AJ0 journal_NN1 ._SENT Eventually_AV0 he_PNP found_VVD Ishino_NP0 's_POS paper_NN1 ._SENT 
The_AT0 E_NP0 ._SENT colibacterium_NN1 that_CJT Ishino_NP0 studied_VVD is_VBZ a_AT0 very_AV0 different_AJ0 organism_NN1 from_PRP Mojica_NP0 's_POS archaea_NN1 ._SENT So_AV0 it_PNP was_VBD surprising_AJ0 that_CJT they_PNP both_AV0 had_VHD these_DT0 repeated_AJ0 sequences_NN2 and_CJC spacer_NN1 segments_NN2 ._SENT This_DT0 convinced_AJ0 Mojica_NN1 that_CJT the_AT0 phenomenon_NN1 must_VM0 have_VHI some_DT0 important_AJ0 biological_AJ0 purpose_NN1 ._SENT In_PRP a_AT0 paper_NN1 he_PNP published_VVD in_PRP 1995_CRD ,_PUN he_PNP and_CJC his_DPS thesis_NN1 advisor_NN1 dubbed_VVD them_PNP "_PUQ tandem_NN1 repeats_VVZ ,_PUN "_PUQ and_CJC they_PNP guessed_VVD ,_PUN incorrectly_AV0 ,_PUN that_CJT they_PNP might_VM0 have_VHI something_PNI to_TO0 do_VDI with_PRP cell_NN1 replication_NN1 ._SENT 
After_PRP doing_VDG two_CRD quick_AJ0 postdoctoral_AJ0 stints_NN2 ,_PUN one_PNI in_PRP Salt_NP0 Lake_NP0 City_NN1 and_CJC the_AT0 other_NN1 at_PRP Oxford_NP0 ,_PUN Mojica_NP0 returned_VVD in_PRP 1997_CRD to_PRP the_AT0 University_NN1 of_PRF Alicante_NP0 ,_PUN which_DTQ was_VBD just_AV0 a_AT0 few_DT0 miles_NN2 from_PRP where_AVQ he_PNP was_VBD born_VVN ,_PUN and_CJC launched_VVD a_AT0 research_NN1 group_NN1 to_TO0 study_VVI these_DT0 mysterious_AJ0 repeated_AJ0 sequences_NN2 ._SENT 
