INTRODUCTION_NN1 
Law_NN1 has_VHZ traditionally_AV0 been_VBN described_VVN as_CJS grounded_VVN in_PRP reason_NN1 and_CJC devoid_AJ0 of_PRF emotion_NN1 (_PUL Bandes_NP0 1999_CRD ,_PUN Maroney_NP0 2011_CRD )_PUR ._SENT Yet_AV0 ,_PUN people_NN0 naturally_AV0 feel_VVB moral_AJ0 emotions_NN2 when_CJS they_PNP witness_VVB an_AT0 act_NN1 of_PRF harm_NN1 to_PRP another_DT0 person_NN1 ,_PUN which_DTQ is_VBZ an_AT0 almost_AV0 definitional_AJ0 aspect_NN1 of_PRF a_AT0 legal_AJ0 factfinder_NN1 's_POS job_NN1 when_CJS judging_VVG a_AT0 criminal_AJ0 or_CJC civil_AJ0 case_NN1 ._SENT Broadly_AV0 ,_PUN moral_AJ0 emotions_NN2 are_VBB emotional_AJ0 responses_NN2 to_PRP moral_AJ0 violations_NN2 ,_PUN including_PRP "_PUQ other-condemning_AJ0 "_PUQ emotions_NN2 like_PRP anger_NN1 and_CJC disgust_NN1 ,_PUN or_CJC emotions_NN2 that_CJT motivate_VVB moral_AJ0 behavior_NN1 ,_PUN including_PRP "_PUQ other-suffering_AJ0 "_PUQ emotions_NN2 like_PRP sympathy_NN1 and_CJC empathy_NN1 —_PUN among_PRP others_NN2 (_PUL Haidt_NP0 ,_PUN 2002_CRD )_PUR ._SENT Thus_AV0 ,_PUN negative_AJ0 moral_AJ0 emotions_NN2 commonly_AV0 include_VVB those_DT0 with_PRP a_AT0 negative_AJ0 valence_NN1 that_DT0 focus_NN1 on_PRP condemning_VVG immoral_AJ0 acts_NN2 of_PRF others_NN2 (_PUL i.e._AV0 ,_PUN anger_NN1 ,_PUN disgust_NN1 ,_PUN moral_AJ0 outrage_NN1 )_PUR and_CJC positive_AJ0 moral_AJ0 emotions_NN2 commonly_AV0 include_VVB those_DT0 with_PRP a_AT0 positive_AJ0 valence_NN1 focused_VVN on_PRP moral_AJ0 concern_NN1 for_PRP others_NN2 (_PUL i.e._AV0 ,_PUN sympathy_NN1 ,_PUN empathy_NN1 ,_PUN pity_NN1 )_PUR (_PUL Giner-Sorolla_NP0 ,_PUN 2012_CRD )_PUR ._SENT Judges_NN2 and_CJC jurors_NN2 are_VBB asked_VVN to_TO0 delve_VVI into_PRP the_AT0 most_AV0 disturbing_AJ0 details_NN2 of_PRF whether_CJS and_CJC why_AVQ someone_PNI caused_VVD intentional_AJ0 or_CJC unintentional_AJ0 (_PUL and_CJC often_AV0 violent_AJ0 )_PUR harm_NN1 to_PRP another_DT0 person_NN1 ._SENT Not_XX0 only_AV0 are_VBB emotions_NN2 inevitably_AV0 and_CJC inextricably_AV0 linked_VVN to_PRP cognition_NN1 ,_PUN but_CJC to_PRP some_DT0 degree_NN1 they_PNP are_VBB desirable_AJ0 ._SENT People_NN0 with_PRP brain_NN1 damage_NN1 to_PRP areas_NN2 necessary_AJ0 for_PRP social_AJ0 emotions_NN2 exhibit_VVB abnormal_AJ0 and_CJC sometimes_AV0 disturbing_AJ0 moral_AJ0 judgment_NN1 of_PRF what_DTQ is_VBZ right_AJ0 and_CJC wrong_AJ0 (_PUL Koenigs_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 2007_CRD )_PUR ._SENT However_AV0 ,_PUN extremely_AV0 emotional_AJ0 evidence_NN1 at_PRP trial_NN1 can_VM0 heighten_VVI factfinders_NN2 '_POS moral_AJ0 emotions_NN2 and_CJC stress_NN1 to_PRP a_AT0 problematic_AJ0 degree_NN1 ._SENT Heightened_AJ0 moral_AJ0 emotions_NN2 can_VM0 directly_AV0 prejudice_VVI factfinders_NN2 against_PRP defendants_NN2 by_PRP creating_VVG a_AT0 need_NN1 to_TO0 blame_VVI and_CJC punish_VVI for_PRP the_AT0 harm_NN1 they_PNP have_VHB witnessed_VVN ._SENT More_AV0 insidiously_AV0 ,_PUN heightened_AJ0 moral_AJ0 emotions_NN2 can_VM0 also_AV0 unconsciously_AV0 bias_VVB even_AV0 the_AT0 most_AV0 well-meaning_AJ0 and_CJC diligent_AJ0 factfinder_NN1 's_POS decision-making_AJ0 process_NN1 in_PRP ways_NN2 that_CJT can_VM0 prejudice_VVI them_PNP against_PRP defendants_NN2 ._SENT In_PRP addition_NN1 ,_PUN victims_NN2 '_POS ,_PUN defendants_NN2 '_POS ,_PUN witnesses_NN2 '_POS ,_PUN and_CJC attorneys_NN2 '_POS emotional_AJ0 expressions_NN2 can_VM0 bias_VVI factfinders_NN2 '_POS judgments_NN2 of_PRF their_DPS credibility_NN1 when_CJS they_PNP violate_VVB factfinders_NN2 '_POS (_PUL often_AV0 incorrect_AJ0 )_PUR expectations_NN2 for_PRP what_DTQ emotion_NN1 they_PNP think_VVB is_VBZ appropriate_AJ0 ._SENT Further_AV0 ,_PUN when_CJS factfinders_NN2 themselves_PNX express_VVB their_DPS emotions_NN2 ,_PUN they_PNP can_VM0 gain_VVI or_CJC lose_VVI influence_NN1 ,_PUN depending_VVG on_PRP their_DPS gender_NN1 or_CJC race_NN1 ._SENT Drawing_VVG from_PRP moral_AJ0 ,_PUN legal_AJ0 ,_PUN cognitive_AJ0 ,_PUN and_CJC social_AJ0 psychological_AJ0 science_NN1 ,_PUN I_PNP review_VVB how_AVQ factfinders_NN2 '_POS experienced_AJ0 and_CJC expressed_AJ0 emotion_NN1 can_VM0 lead_VVI to_PRP biases_NN2 in_PRP legal_AJ0 decision_NN1 making_VVG ,_PUN as_CJS well_AV0 as_CJS both_AV0 misguided_AJ0 and_CJC promising_AJ0 interventions_NN2 aimed_VVN at_PRP helping_VVG factfinders_NN2 regulate_VVI their_DPS emotions_NN2 ._SENT 
EMOTIONAL_AJ0 REACTIONS_NN2 TO_PRP EVIDENCE_NN1 AT_PRP TRIAL_NN1 
Emotionally_AV0 disturbing_AJ0 evidence_NN1 ,_PUN such_DT0 as_PRP gruesome_AJ0 crime-scene_AJ0 photographs_NN2 ,_PUN is_VBZ extremely_AV0 common_AJ0 in_PRP homicide_NN1 trials_NN2 (_PUL Schweitzer_NP0 &_NP0 Nuñez_NP0 2018_CRD )_PUR —_PUN but_CJC is_VBZ also_AV0 likely_AJ0 to_TO0 appear_VVI in_PRP any_DT0 civil_AJ0 or_CJC criminal_AJ0 trial_NN1 that_CJT involves_VVZ violence_NN1 or_CJC accidental_AJ0 injuries_NN2 ._SENT With_PRP advancing_AJ0 technology_NN1 ,_PUN this_DT0 is_VBZ likely_AJ0 to_TO0 include_VVI high-resolution_AJ0 photographs_NN2 of_PRF gruesome_AJ0 injuries_NN2 ,_PUN video_NN1 footage_NN1 of_PRF horrific_AJ0 accidents_NN2 and_CJC /_PUN or_CJC violent_AJ0 crimes_NN2 ,_PUN and_CJC even_AV0 potentially_AV0 Hollywood-level_AJ0 ,_PUN animated_AJ0 reenactments_NN2 of_PRF violence_NN1 or_CJC accidents_NN2 that_CJT give_VVB the_AT0 air_NN1 of_PRF evidence_NN1 but_CJC do_VDB not_XX0 in_PRP fact_NN1 hold_VVB probative_AJ0 value_NN1 ._SENT Jurors_NN2 report_VVB exposure_NN1 to_PRP graphic_AJ0 evidence_NN1 and_CJC emotional_AJ0 testimony_NN1 as_PRP common_AJ0 sources_NN2 of_PRF stress_NN1 (_PUL Lonergan_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 2016_CRD )_PUR ,_PUN leading_VVG to_PRP vicarious_AJ0 trauma_NN1 (_PUL Robertson_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 2009_CRD )_PUR ._SENT After_PRP serving_VVG jury_NN1 duty_NN1 ,_PUN substantial_AJ0 percentages_NN2 of_PRF jurors_NN2 meet_VVB diagnostic_AJ0 criteria_NN2 for_PRP post-traumatic_AJ0 stress_NN1 disorder_NN1 (_PUL Palmer_NP0 2005_CRD )_PUR and_CJC trauma-related_AJ0 symptoms_NN2 including_PRP intrusive_AJ0 memories_NN2 ,_PUN insomnia_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC nightmares_NN2 (_PUL Lonergan_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 2016_CRD )_PUR ._SENT Jurors_NN2 meet_VVB criteria_NN2 for_PRP clinical_AJ0 depression_NN1 more_AV0 often_AV0 when_CJS exposed_VVN to_PRP graphic_AJ0 evidence_NN1 (_PUL Shuman_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 1994_CRD )_PUR ._SENT Judges_NN2 also_AV0 report_VVB vicarious_AJ0 trauma_NN1 from_PRP being_VBG exposed_VVN to_PRP the_AT0 details_NN2 of_PRF horrific_AJ0 violent_AJ0 crimes_NN2 (_PUL Chamberlain_NP0 &_NP0 Miller_NP0 2008_CRD ,_PUN Jaffe_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 2003_CRD )_PUR and_CJC experience_NN1 anger_NN1 (_PUL Maroney_NP0 2012_CRD )_PUR ,_PUN sadness_NN1 (_PUL Anleu_NP0 &_NP0 Mack_NP0 2005_CRD )_PUR ,_PUN and_CJC fear_NN1 (_PUL Maroney_NP0 2011_CRD )_PUR on_PRP the_AT0 job_NN1 ._SENT Not_XX0 only_AV0 are_VBB trials_NN2 a_AT0 recipe_NN1 for_PRP intense_AJ0 moral_AJ0 emotions_NN2 ,_PUN but_CJC they_PNP officially_AV0 assign_VVB factfinders_NN2 as_PRP the_AT0 arbiters_NN2 of_PRF ensuring_VVG justice_NN1 for_PRP the_AT0 emotionally_AV0 disturbing_AJ0 harms_NN2 they_PNP witness_VVB ._SENT 
Traditionally_AV0 ,_PUN being_VBG a_AT0 good_AJ0 judge_NN1 has_VHZ meant_VVN remaining_AJ0 cold_NN1 ,_PUN unemotional_AJ0 ,_PUN and_CJC impartial_AJ0 (_PUL Maroney_NP0 &_NP0 Gross_NP0 2014_CRD )_PUR ._SENT Indeed_AV0 ,_PUN both_DT0 trial_NN1 attorneys_NN2 and_CJC federal_AJ0 judges_NN2 believe_VVB that_CJT judges_NN2 are_VBB less_AV0 likely_AJ0 to_TO0 be_VBI influenced_VVN by_PRP their_DPS emotional_AJ0 reactions_NN2 than_CJS are_VBB jurors_NN2 (_PUL Figure_NN1 1_CRD )_PUR ,_PUN rating_NN1 judges_NN2 below_PRP the_AT0 midpoint_NN1 but_CJC jurors_NN2 above_PRP the_AT0 midpoint_NN1 ._SENT Psychological_AJ0 research_NN1 demonstrating_VVG desensitization_NN1 ,_PUN or_CJC the_AT0 decreased_AJ0 sensitivity_NN1 and_CJC reactivity_NN1 of_PRF typical_AJ0 emotional_AJ0 responses_NN2 to_PRP events_NN2 (_PUL Cline_NP0 ,_PUN Croft_NP0 &_NP0 Courrier_NP0 ,_PUN 1973_CRD )_PUR ,_PUN in_PRP other_AJ0 contexts_NN2 (_PUL Anderson_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 2010_CRD )_PUR suggests_VVZ that_CJT judges_NN2 could_VM0 develop_VVI blunted_AJ0 emotional_AJ0 reactions_NN2 to_PRP disturbing_AJ0 evidence_NN1 over_PRP the_AT0 course_NN1 of_PRF their_DPS careers_NN2 ._SENT Unfortunately_AV0 ,_PUN very_AV0 little_AV0 empirical_AJ0 research_NN1 compares_VVZ judges_NN2 '_POS and_CJC jurors_NN2 '_POS emotional_AJ0 responses_NN2 or_CJC how_AVQ much_AV0 they_PNP are_VBB affected_VVN by_PRP them_PNP ._SENT The_AT0 psychological_AJ0 science_NN1 I_PNP review_VVB on_PRP the_AT0 impact_NN1 of_PRF experiencing_VVG and_CJC expressing_VVG emotions_NN2 on_PRP legal_AJ0 judgments_NN2 is_VBZ therefore_AV0 largely_AV0 based_VVN on_PRP lay_AJ0 samples_NN2 ._SENT The_AT0 lack_NN1 of_PRF judicial_AJ0 research_NN1 precludes_VVZ me_PNP from_PRP being_VBG able_AJ0 to_TO0 say_VVI whether_CJS it_PNP applies_VVZ equally_AV0 to_PRP judges_NN2 and_CJC highlights_VVZ the_AT0 importance_NN1 of_PRF future_AJ0 research_NN1 on_PRP judges_NN2 ._SENT 
EXPERIENCED_AJ0 EMOTION_NN1 AND_CJC LEGAL_AJ0 FACTFINDING_NN1 
The_AT0 Effect_NN1 of_PRF Emotion_NN1 on_PRP Legal_AJ0 Judgments_NN2 
Jurors_NN2 '_POS emotional_AJ0 reactions_NN2 are_VBB significantly_AV0 related_VVN to_PRP their_DPS legal_AJ0 judgments_NN2 (_PUL Feigenson_NP0 2016_CRD )_PUR ._SENT Negative_AJ0 moral_AJ0 emotions_NN2 like_PRP anger_NN1 ,_PUN disgust_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC moral_AJ0 outrage_NN1 ,_PUN in_PRP particular_AJ0 ,_PUN are_VBB correlated_VVN with_PRP more_AV0 guilty_AJ0 and_CJC liability_NN1 verdicts_NN2 (_PUL Bright_NP0 &_NP0 Goodman-Delahunty_NP0 2006_CRD ,_PUN Matsuo_NP0 &_NP0 Itoh_NP0 2017_CRD ,_PUN Salerno_NP0 2017_CRD ,_PUN Salerno_NP0 &_NP0 Peter-Hagene_NP0 2013_CRD ,_PUN Salerno_NP0 &_NP0 Phalen_NP0 2019a_NP0 )_PUR and_CJC harsher_AJC punishments_NN2 (_PUL e.g._AV0 ,_PUN Georges_NP0 et_NP0 al._NP0 2013_CRD ,_PUN Nuñez_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 2015_CRD )_PUR ._SENT Positive_AJ0 moral_AJ0 emotions_NN2 ,_PUN such_DT0 as_PRP sympathy_NN1 or_CJC empathy_NN1 for_PRP victims_NN2 ,_PUN are_VBB correlated_VVN with_PRP decreased_AJ0 convictions_NN2 (_PUL Jones_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 2020_CRD )_PUR ,_PUN whereas_CJS empathy_NN1 for_PRP defendants_NN2 can_VM0 increase_VVI convictions_NN2 (_PUL Archer_NP0 et_NP0 al._NP0 1979_CRD ,_PUN Haegerich_NP0 &_NP0 Bottoms_NN2 2000._CRD 
Emotionally_AV0 evocative_AJ0 evidence_NN1 can_VM0 elicit_VVI these_DT0 moral_AJ0 emotions_NN2 in_PRP jurors_NN2 ,_PUN which_DTQ are_VBB ,_PUN in_PRP turn_NN1 ,_PUN associated_VVN with_PRP harsher_AJC verdicts_NN2 and_CJC punishment_NN1 ._SENT These_DT0 experiments_NN2 most_AV0 commonly_AV0 test_VVI the_AT0 impact_NN1 of_PRF gruesome_AJ0 photographs_NN2 of_PRF victims_NN2 and_CJC victim_NN1 impact_NN1 statements_NN2 (_PUL VIS_CRD )_PUR from_PRP victims_NN2 or_CJC their_DPS families_NN2 (_PUL Bandes_NP0 &_NP0 Salerno_NP0 2014_CRD ,_PUN Phalen_NP0 et_NP0 al._NP0 2020_CRD ,_PUN Salerno_NP0 &_NP0 Bottoms_NN2 2009_CRD )_PUR ._SENT When_CJS mock_AJ0 jurors_NN2 are_VBB randomly_AV0 assigned_VVN to_TO0 view_VVI gruesome_AJ0 photographs_NN2 of_PRF victims_NN2 '_POS injuries_NN2 ,_PUN they_PNP render_VVB verdicts_NN2 more_DT0 in_PRP line_NN1 with_PRP blaming_VVG the_AT0 defendant_NN1 and_CJC harsher_AJC punishments_NN2 ,_PUN compared_VVN with_PRP those_DT0 who_PNQ learn_VVB about_PRP the_AT0 details_NN2 of_PRF the_AT0 injuries_NN2 through_PRP verbal_AJ0 testimony_NN1 (_PUL Grady_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 2018_CRD )_PUR ._SENT More_AV0 specifically_AV0 ,_PUN gruesome_AJ0 photographs_NN2 increase_VVB guilty_AJ0 verdicts_NN2 (_PUL Bright_NP0 &_NP0 Goodman-Delahunty_NP0 2006_CRD ,_PUN Edwards_NP0 &_NP0 Mottarella_NP0 2014_CRD ,_PUN Matsuo_NP0 &_NP0 Itoh_NP0 2017_CRD ,_PUN Salerno_NP0 2017_CRD )_PUR ,_PUN liability_NN1 verdicts_NN2 (_PUL Bright_NP0 &_NP0 Goodman-Delahunty_NP0 2011_CRD ,_PUN Oliver_NP0 &_NP0 Griffitt_NP0 1976_CRD )_PUR ,_PUN harsher_AJC sentences_NN2 (_PUL Finkelstein_NP0 &_NP0 Bastounis_NP0 2010_CRD )_PUR ,_PUN and_CJC damage_NN1 awards_NN2 (_PUL Oliver_NP0 &_NP0 Griffitt_NP0 1976_CRD ,_PUN Whalen_NP0 &_NP0 Blanchard_NP0 1982_CRD )_PUR ._SENT 
Several_DT0 studies_NN2 have_VHB identified_VVN jurors_NN2 '_POS emotional_AJ0 reactions_NN2 to_PRP the_AT0 photographs_NN2 as_PRP an_AT0 explanation_NN1 (_PUL or_CJC mediator_NN1 )_PUR of_PRF the_AT0 effect_NN1 ._SENT Mock_AJ0 jurors_NN2 who_PNQ saw_VVD gruesome_AJ0 photographs_NN2 were_VBD significantly_AV0 more_AV0 likely_AJ0 to_TO0 vote_VVI guilty_AJ0 via_PRP increased_AJ0 disgust_NN1 (_PUL Salerno_NP0 2017_CRD )_PUR and_CJC anger_NN1 (_PUL Bright_NP0 &_NP0 Goodman-Delahunty_NP0 2006_CRD )_PUR ._SENT Similarly_AV0 ,_PUN a_AT0 gruesome_AJ0 photograph_NN1 of_PRF a_AT0 plaintiff_NN1 's_POS severed_AJ0 leg_NN1 significantly_AV0 increased_AJ0 liability_NN1 verdicts_NN2 via_PRP increased_AJ0 disgust_NN1 (_PUL Salerno_NP0 &_NP0 Phalen_NP0 2019a_NP0 )_PUR ._SENT Seeing_VVG a_AT0 combination_NN1 of_PRF photographs_NN2 of_PRF the_AT0 victim_NN1 alive_AJ0 and_CJC well_AV0 before_CJS she_PNP died_VVD and_CJC gruesome_AJ0 postmortem_NN1 photographs_NN2 after_CJS she_PNP died_VVD is_VBZ particularly_AV0 potent_AJ0 ._SENT Mock_AJ0 jurors_NN2 are_VBB even_AV0 more_DT0 conviction_NN1 prone_AJ0 when_CJS they_PNP see_VVB this_DT0 combination_NN1 compared_VVN with_PRP just_AV0 postmortem_NN1 photographs_NN2 ,_PUN because_CJS seeing_VVG the_AT0 contrast_NN1 increases_VVZ anger_NN1 and_CJC sadness_NN1 in_PRP addition_NN1 to_PRP the_AT0 disgust_NN1 elicited_VVN by_PRP the_AT0 postmortem_NN1 photographs_NN2 (_PUL M_ZZ0 ._SENT Adamoli_NP0 ,_PUN H.J._NP0 Phalen_NP0 ,_PUN &_NP0 J.M._NP0 Salerno_NP0 ,_PUN manuscript_NN1 in_PRP preparation_NN1 )_PUR ._SENT 
Victim_NN1 impact_NN1 statement_NN1 (_PUL VIS_CRD )_PUR studies_NN2 provide_VVB converging_AJ0 evidence_NN1 that_CJT emotional_AJ0 responses_NN2 to_PRP evidence_NN1 can_VM0 lead_VVI to_PRP harsher_AJC judgments_NN2 ._SENT Mock_AJ0 jurors_NN2 exposed_VVN to_PRP VIS_CRD recommended_VVD harsher_AJC sentences_NN2 than_CJS those_DT0 who_PNQ were_VBD not_XX0 exposed_VVN (_PUL Bandes_NP0 &_NP0 Salerno_NP0 2014_CRD ,_PUN Phalen_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 2020_CRD )_PUR ._SENT At_PRP least_AV0 one_CRD study_NN1 identified_VVD emotional_AJ0 reactions_NN2 as_PRP the_AT0 explanation_NN1 :_PUN Mock_AJ0 jurors_NN2 who_PNQ saw_VVD VIS_NP0 were_VBD more_AV0 likely_AJ0 to_TO0 recommend_VVI the_AT0 death_NN1 penalty_NN1 than_CJS those_DT0 who_PNQ did_VDD not_XX0 see_VVI VIS_NP0 ,_PUN because_CJS such_DT0 statements_NN2 increased_AJ0 sympathy_NN1 /_PUN empathy_NN1 toward_PRP the_AT0 victim_NN1 (_PUL Paternoster_NP0 &_NP0 Deise_NN1 2011_CRD )_PUR ._SENT 
Beyond_PRP gruesome_AJ0 photographs_NN2 and_CJC VIS_CRD ,_PUN experiments_NN2 have_VHB identified_VVN emotional_AJ0 reactions_NN2 as_PRP an_AT0 explanation_NN1 for_PRP the_AT0 impact_NN1 of_PRF many_DT0 other_AJ0 factors_NN2 that_CJT make_VVB mock_AJ0 jurors_NN2 choose_VVB harsher_AJC verdicts_NN2 and_CJC punishments_NN2 ._SENT Examples_NN2 include_VVB mock_AJ0 jurors_NN2 (_PUL a_AT0 )_PUR punishing_VVG gay_AJ0 offenders_NN2 more_AV0 ,_PUN because_CJS they_PNP elicit_VVB more_DT0 moral_AJ0 outrage_NN1 relative_AJ0 to_PRP heterosexual_AJ0 offenders_NN2 (_PUL Salerno_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 2014_CRD )_PUR ;_PUN (_PUL b_ZZ0 )_PUR voting_VVG liable_AJ0 more_AV0 when_CJS civil_AJ0 sexual_AJ0 assault_NN1 defendants_NN2 were_VBD male_AJ0 ,_PUN because_CJS they_PNP elicited_VVD more_AV0 moral_AJ0 outrage_NN1 than_CJS female_AJ0 defendants_NN2 (_PUL McCracken_NP0 &_NP0 Stevenson_NP0 2017_CRD )_PUR ;_PUN (_PUL c_ZZ0 )_PUR voting_VVG guilty_AJ0 less_AV0 when_CJS a_AT0 gay_AJ0 panic_NN1 defense_NN1 was_VBD offered_VVN ,_PUN because_CJS they_PNP felt_VVD less_AV0 moral_AJ0 outrage_NN1 than_CJS when_CJS they_PNP did_VDD not_XX0 hear_VVI a_AT0 gay_AJ0 panic_NN1 defense_NN1 (_PUL in_PRP the_AT0 case_NN1 of_PRF conservative_AJ0 jurors_NN2 )_PUR (_PUL Salerno_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 2015_CRD )_PUR ;_PUN and_CJC (_PUL d_ZZ0 )_PUR voting_VVG guilty_AJ0 more_AV0 when_CJS they_PNP saw_VVD irrelevant_AJ0 negative_AJ0 emotional_AJ0 pretrial_AJ0 publicity_NN1 about_PRP the_AT0 defendant_NN1 ,_PUN because_CJS it_PNP made_VVD them_PNP angrier_AJC than_CJS jurors_NN2 who_PNQ did_VDD not_XX0 see_VVI it_PNP (_PUL Ruva_NP0 et_NP0 al._NN1 2011_CRD )_PUR ._SENT 
Probative_AJ0 Versus_PRP Prejudicial_AJ0 ?_SENT 
The_AT0 fact_NN1 that_CJT emotionally_AV0 disturbing_AJ0 evidence_NN1 like_PRP crime-scene_AJ0 photographs_NN2 or_CJC VIS_NP0 affects_VVZ factfinders_NN2 '_POS judgments_NN2 is_VBZ probably_AV0 not_XX0 surprising_AJ0 to_PRP attorneys_NN2 or_CJC judges_NN2 ._SENT Nor_CJC would_VM0 it_PNP be_VBI concerning_VVG unless_CJS it_PNP was_VBD clear_AJ0 that_CJT it_PNP was_VBD affecting_VVG jurors_NN2 '_POS judgments_NN2 through_PRP improper_AJ0 or_CJC extralegal_AJ0 channels_NN2 ._SENT If_CJS emotional_AJ0 evidence_NN1 affects_VVZ decisions_NN2 because_CJS of_PRF the_AT0 information_NN1 it_PNP provides_VVZ ,_PUN fine_AJ0 ._SENT If_CJS emotional_AJ0 evidence_NN1 affects_VVZ decisions_NN2 because_CJS of_PRF factfinders_NN2 '_POS emotional_AJ0 reactions_NN2 ,_PUN we_PNP must_VM0 scrutinize_VVI when_AVQ that_DT0 emotion_NN1 might_VM0 be_VBI probative_AJ0 ,_PUN and_CJC when_CJS that_DT0 emotion_NN1 prejudices_VVZ them_PNP against_PRP defendants_NN2 (_PUL Bandes_NP0 &_NP0 Salerno_NP0 ,_PUN 2014_CRD )_PUR ,_PUN which_DTQ is_VBZ more_AV0 problematic_AJ0 ._SENT The_AT0 legal_AJ0 system_NN1 recognizes_VVZ the_AT0 potentially_AV0 prejudicial_AJ0 impact_NN1 of_PRF emotionally_AV0 disturbing_AJ0 evidence_NN1 ._SENT Rule_NN1 403_CRD dictates_VVZ that_CJT judges_NN2 can_VM0 exclude_VVI relevant_AJ0 evidence_NN1 if_CJS its_DPS prejudicial_AJ0 impact_NN1 outweighs_VVZ its_DPS probative_AJ0 value_NN1 ,_PUN clarifying_VVG in_PRP the_AT0 advisory_AJ0 notes_NN2 that_CJT prejudice_VVB "_PUQ means_VVZ an_AT0 undue_AJ0 tendency_NN1 to_TO0 suggest_VVI a_AT0 decision_NN1 on_PRP an_AT0 improper_AJ0 basis_NN1 ,_PUN commonly_AV0 ,_PUN though_CJS not_XX0 necessarily_AV0 ,_PUN an_AT0 emotional_AJ0 one_PNI "_PUQ ._SENT This_DT0 would_VM0 be_VBI an_AT0 incredibly_AV0 difficult_AJ0 assessment_NN1 even_AV0 for_PRP emotion_NN1 researchers_NN2 ,_PUN let_VVB alone_AV0 for_PRP a_AT0 judge_NN1 with_PRP no_AT0 psychological_AJ0 training_NN1 ._SENT She_PNP must_VM0 somehow_AV0 quantify_VVI the_AT0 probative_AJ0 value_NN1 of_PRF ,_PUN for_PRP example_NN1 ,_PUN a_AT0 given_AJ0 photograph_NN1 (_PUL taking_VVG into_PRP account_NN1 redundant_AJ0 evidence_NN1 that_CJT establishes_VVZ the_AT0 same_DT0 information_NN1 )_PUR ,_PUN play_NN1 armchair_NN1 psychologist_NN1 and_CJC anticipate_VVB how_AVQ the_AT0 photograph_NN1 might_VM0 prejudice_VVI decision_NN1 making_VVG ,_PUN and_CJC weigh_VVB the_AT0 two_CRD against_PRP each_DT0 other_NN1 ._SENT 
Emotion_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX0 monolithically_AV0 prejudicial_AJ0 or_CJC probative_AJ0 ._SENT Instead_AV0 ,_PUN determining_VVG whether_CJS an_AT0 emotional_AJ0 response_NN1 is_VBZ probative_AJ0 or_CJC prejudicial_AJ0 is_VBZ incredibly_AV0 complex_AJ0 and_CJC case-specific_AJ0 ._SENT Although_CJS there_EX0 is_VBZ certainly_AV0 a_AT0 lot_NN1 of_PRF empirical_AJ0 evidence_NN1 (_PUL that_DT0 will_VM0 be_VBI reviewed_VVN in_PRP detail_NN1 )_PUR that_DT0 emotion_NN1 can_VM0 prejudice_VVI legal_AJ0 factfinders_NN2 '_POS decision_NN1 making_VVG processes_NN2 ,_PUN emotion_NN1 also_AV0 has_VHZ potential_NN1 to_TO0 be_VBI probative_AJ0 in_PRP some_DT0 circumstances_NN2 ._SENT In_PRP United_NP0 States_NP0 v._PRP Old_AJ0 Chief_NN1 ,_PUN the_AT0 Supreme_AJ0 Court_NN1 recognized_VVD the_AT0 prosecution_NN1 's_VBZ right_AJ0 to_TO0 "_PUQ tell_VVI a_AT0 colorful_AJ0 story_NN1 with_PRP descriptive_AJ0 richness_NN1 ,_PUN "_PUQ and_CJC some_DT0 argue_VVB that_CJT stripping_AJ0 evidence_NN1 of_PRF its_DPS emotional_AJ0 impact_NN1 would_VM0 mean_VVI stripping_VVG it_PNP of_PRF its_DPS persuasive_AJ0 ,_PUN and_CJC therefore_AV0 ,_PUN probative_AJ0 power_NN1 ._SENT For_PRP example_NN1 ,_PUN people_NN0 who_PNQ endorse_VVB a_AT0 retribution-based_AJ0 philosophy_NN1 of_PRF punishment_NN1 argue_VVB that_CJT emotional_AJ0 reactions_NN2 to_PRP harm_NN1 are_VBB probative_AJ0 to_PRP punishment_NN1 decisions_NN2 —_PUN and_CJC in_PRP fact_NN1 ,_PUN in_PRP the_AT0 death_NN1 penalty_NN1 context_NN1 ,_PUN it_PNP is_VBZ made_VVN explicit_AJ0 that_CJT jurors_NN2 should_VM0 consult_VVI their_DPS emotions_NN2 ._SENT Some_DT0 consider_VVB moral_AJ0 outrage_NN1 to_TO0 be_VBI an_AT0 emotional_AJ0 barometer_NN1 that_CJT reflects_VVZ how_AVQ much_DT0 harm_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN committed_VVN ,_PUN which_DTQ determines_VVZ how_AVQ much_DT0 punishment_NN1 is_VBZ appropriate_AJ0 (_PUL Bastian_NP0 et_NP0 al._NP0 2013_CRD ,_PUN Carlsmith_NP0 et_NP0 al._NP0 2002_CRD ,_PUN Lotz_NP0 et_NP0 al._NP0 2011_CRD ,_PUN Okimoto_NP0 &_NP0 Brescoll_NP0 2010_CRD ,_PUN Salerno_NP0 &_NP0 Peter-Hagene_NP0 2013_CRD )_PUR ._SENT Thus_AV0 ,_PUN factfinders_NN2 '_POS emotional_AJ0 reactions_NN2 to_TO0 harm_VVI depicted_VVN in_PRP gruesome_AJ0 photographs_NN2 or_CJC VIS_NP0 might_VM0 provide_VVI probative_AJ0 information_NN1 regarding_PRP how_AVQ much_DT0 punishment_NN1 a_AT0 guilty_AJ0 defendant_NN1 deserves_VVZ ._SENT Factfinders_NP0 '_POS moral_AJ0 outrage_NN1 or_CJC sympathy_NN1 /_PUN empathy_NN1 about_PRP plaintiffs_NN2 '_POS pain_NN1 or_CJC grief_NN1 might_VM0 be_VBI probative_AJ0 for_PRP quantifying_VVG pain-and-suffering_AJ0 damages_NN2 ._SENT In_PRP some_DT0 cases_NN2 ,_PUN jurors_NN2 '_POS emotional_AJ0 responses_NN2 might_VM0 also_AV0 be_VBI probative_AJ0 for_PRP verdicts_NN2 ._SENT For_PRP example_NN1 ,_PUN in_PRP self-defense_AJ0 cases_NN2 ,_PUN jurors_NN2 '_POS empathetic_AJ0 fear_NN1 might_VM0 inform_VVI whether_CJS they_PNP believe_VVB the_AT0 defendant_NN1 felt_VVD imminent_AJ0 danger_NN1 ,_PUN or_CJC jurors_NN2 '_POS anger_NN1 when_CJS hearing_VVG evidence_NN1 of_PRF provocation_NN1 might_VM0 inform_VVI whether_CJS they_PNP think_VVB the_AT0 defendant_NN1 's_POS loss_NN1 of_PRF control_NN1 was_VBD reasonable_AJ0 ._SENT 
Yet_AV0 ,_PUN there_EX0 are_VBB also_AV0 many_DT0 circumstances_NN2 in_PRP which_DTQ jurors_NN2 '_POS emotional_AJ0 reactions_NN2 to_PRP emotional_AJ0 evidence_NN1 might_VM0 be_VBI prejudicial_AJ0 in_PRP that_DT0 their_DPS emotional_AJ0 responses_NN2 can_VM0 bias_VVI their_DPS decision_NN1 making_VVG processes_NN2 ,_PUN while_CJS providing_VVG little_DT0 probative_AJ0 value_NN1 beyond_PRP what_DTQ is_VBZ already_AV0 conveyed_VVN via_PRP other_AJ0 evidence_NN1 ._SENT Take_VVB an_AT0 example_NN1 of_PRF jurors_NN2 who_PNQ are_VBB shown_VVN gruesome_AJ0 photographs_NN2 of_PRF injuries_NN2 while_CJS making_VVG a_AT0 verdict_NN1 determination_NN1 about_AV0 whether_CJS the_AT0 evidence_NN1 that_CJT a_AT0 murder_NN1 defendant_NN1 committed_VVD the_AT0 act_NN1 in_PRP question_NN1 is_VBZ strong_AJ0 enough_AV0 to_TO0 meet_VVI the_AT0 burden_NN1 of_PRF proof_NN1 ._SENT Their_DPS emotional_AJ0 reaction_NN1 to_PRP seeing_VVG graphic_AJ0 depictions_NN2 of_PRF harm_NN1 or_CJC suffering_NN1 (_PUL that_DT0 might_VM0 be_VBI probative_AJ0 for_PRP punishment_NN1 judgments_NN2 )_PUR would_VM0 not_XX0 be_VBI probative_AJ0 for_PRP a_AT0 guilt_NN1 determination_NN1 ._SENT Yet_AV0 ,_PUN their_DPS emotional_AJ0 reaction_NN1 could_VM0 instigate_VVI a_AT0 biased_AJ0 review_NN1 of_PRF the_AT0 evidence_NN1 in_PRP a_AT0 way_NN1 to_TO0 support_VVI voting_NN1 guilty_AJ0 ,_PUN to_TO0 satisfy_VVI their_DPS emotional_AJ0 need_NN1 to_TO0 see_VVI someone_PNI punished_VVN for_PRP the_AT0 harm_NN1 they_PNP witnessed_VVD ._SENT If_CJS the_AT0 photographs_NN2 '_POS probative_AJ0 information_NN1 about_PRP the_AT0 injuries_NN2 can_VM0 be_VBI established_VVN in_PRP verbal_AJ0 testimony_NN1 or_CJC in_PRP a_AT0 less_AV0 emotionally_AV0 evocative_AJ0 medium_NN1 ,_PUN this_DT0 prejudicial_AJ0 impact_NN1 might_VM0 outweigh_VVI its_DPS probative_AJ0 value_NN1 ._SENT 
