3._CRD Results_NN2 
Using_VVG today_AV0 's_POS technology_NN1 ,_PUN electrofuel_AJ0 production_NN1 using_VVG commercially_AV0 available_AJ0 low-temperature_AJ0 DAC_NP0 would_VM0 be_VBI substantially_AV0 more_AV0 expensive_AJ0 than_CJS petroleum_NN1 jet_NN1 fuel_NN1 ,_PUN shown_VVN in_PRP Figure_NN1 2_CRD at_PRP $_NN0 4.41_CRD –_PUN $_NN0 4.66_CRD per_PRP liter_NN1 of_PRF gasoline_NN1 equivalent_NN1 (_PUL lge_NP0 )_PUR ,_PUN compared_VVN to_PRP the_AT0 average_AJ0 US_NP0 pre-tax_AJ0 jet_NN1 fuel_NN1 price_NN1 of_PRF $_NN0 0.59_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 from_PRP 2010_CRD to_PRP 2019_CRD (_PUL all_DT0 in_PRP 2017_CRD $_NN0 )_PUR ._SENT However_AV0 ,_PUN costs_NN2 in_PRP the_AT0 next-decade_NN1 and_CJC by_PRP 2050_CRD cases_NN2 ,_PUN described_VVN in_PRP Materials_NN2 and_CJC Methods_NN2 ,_PUN are_VBB dramatically_AV0 lower_AJC ,_PUN $_NN0 1.68_CRD –_PUN 1.76_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 and_CJC $_NN0 0.95_CRD –_PUN 0.99_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 ,_PUN respectively_AV0 ,_PUN for_PRP high-temperature_AJ0 DAC_NP0 ,_PUN with_PRP almost_AV0 identical_AJ0 costs_NN2 for_PRP low-temperature_AJ0 DAC_NP0 cases_NN2 ._SENT 
Figure_NN1 2._CRD Levelized_AJ0 cost_NN1 of_PRF electrofuel_NN1 per_PRP liter_NN1 of_PRF gasoline_NN1 equivalent_NN1 (_PUL lge_NN1 )_PUR of_PRF liquid_AJ0 hydrocarbon_NN1 fuel_NN1 produced_VVD using_VVG solar_AJ0 (_PUL A_ZZ0 )_PUR and_CJC wind_NN1 (_PUL B_ZZ0 )_PUR electricity_NN1 ,_PUN considering_VVG both_AV0 high-_AJ0 and_CJC low-temperature_AJ0 DAC_NP0 systems_NN2 in_PRP the_AT0 next-decade_NN1 and_CJC by_PRP 2050_CRD cases_NN2 ._SENT In_PRP all_DT0 cases_NN2 ,_PUN the_AT0 three_CRD largest_AJS cost_NN1 components_NN2 are_VBB capital_AJ0 and_CJC non-energy_AJ0 operational_AJ0 costs_NN2 for_PRP the_AT0 DAC_NP0 system_NN1 ,_PUN the_AT0 electrolyzer_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC the_AT0 renewable_AJ0 electricity_NN1 generation_NN1 ._SENT Most_DT0 cost_NN1 components_NN2 represent_VVB combined_AJ0 capital_NN1 and_CJC non-energy_AJ0 operational_AJ0 costs_NN2 ,_PUN with_PRP the_AT0 exceptions_NN2 of_PRF natural_AJ0 gas_NN1 ,_PUN grid_NN1 electricity_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC water_NN1 which_DTQ represent_VVB the_AT0 cost_NN1 of_PRF commodities_NN2 purchased_VVN from_PRP an_AT0 external_AJ0 interconnection_NN1 ._SENT The_AT0 black_AJ0 dotted_AJ0 and_CJC dashed_AJ0 lines_NN2 are_VBB the_AT0 minimum_AJ0 ,_PUN maximum_AJ0 ,_PUN and_CJC average_AJ0 petroleum_NN1 jet_NN1 fuel_NN1 prices_NN2 from_PRP 2010_CRD to_PRP 2019._CRD All_DT0 costs_NN2 are_VBB in_PRP 2017_CRD $_NN0 ._SENT 
Note_VVB that_CJT cost_NN1 parameters_NN2 for_PRP these_DT0 five_CRD scenarios_NN2 do_VDB not_XX0 attempt_VVI to_TO0 represent_VVI a_AT0 full_AJ0 range_NN1 of_PRF possible_AJ0 futures_NN2 in_PRP the_AT0 development_NN1 of_PRF key_AJ0 component_NN1 technologies_NN2 but_CJC instead_AV0 illustrate_VVB possibilities_NN2 based_VVN on_PRP the_AT0 available_AJ0 literature_NN1 ._SENT The_AT0 relatively_AV0 conservative_AJ0 today_AV0 case_NN1 ,_PUN which_DTQ relies_VVZ largely_AV0 on_PRP the_AT0 peer-reviewed_AJ0 literature_NN1 and_CJC government_NN1 reports_NN2 ,_PUN may_VM0 not_XX0 capture_VVI cutting-edge_AJ0 developments_NN2 ._SENT See_VVB Materials_NN2 and_CJC Methods_NN2 for_PRP further_AJC discussion_NN1 of_PRF the_AT0 scenarios_NN2 ._SENT The_AT0 sensitivity_NN1 analysis_NN1 explores_VVZ the_AT0 relative_AJ0 importance_NN1 of_PRF each_DT0 individual_AJ0 factor_NN1 ._SENT 
In_PRP all_DT0 cases_NN2 ,_PUN the_AT0 combined_AJ0 capital_NN1 and_CJC non-energy_AJ0 operating_NN1 costs_NN2 of_PRF renewable_AJ0 electricity_NN1 generation_NN1 ,_PUN the_AT0 electrolyzer_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC the_AT0 DAC_NP0 system_NN1 are_VBB dominant_AJ0 ,_PUN representing_VVG 62.3_CRD –_PUN 85.7_CRD %_NN0 of_PRF fuel_NN1 cost_NN1 in_PRP all_DT0 cases_NN2 ._SENT Renewable_AJ0 electricity_NN1 generation_NN1 is_VBZ 24.6_CRD –_PUN 38.9_CRD %_NN0 of_PRF fuel_NN1 cost_NN1 in_PRP all_DT0 cases_NN2 ,_PUN with_PRP the_AT0 electrolyzer_NN1 at_PRP 17.7_CRD –_PUN 23.4_CRD %_NN0 in_PRP wind_NN1 cases_NN2 and_CJC 27.5_CRD –_PUN 36.5_CRD %_NN0 in_PRP solar_AJ0 cases_NN2 ._SENT DAC_NP0 represents_VVZ 16.4_CRD –_PUN 23.2_CRD %_NN0 of_PRF fuel_NN1 cost_NN1 ,_PUN with_PRP a_AT0 roughly_AV0 equal_AJ0 cost_NN1 share_NN1 in_PRP the_AT0 comparable_AJ0 wind_NN1 and_CJC solar_AJ0 cases_NN2 ._SENT 
In_PRP the_AT0 today_AV0 case_NN1 for_PRP both_DT0 wind_NN1 and_CJC solar_AJ0 ,_PUN the_AT0 optimization_NN1 supplements_VVZ on-site_AJ0 renewable_AJ0 electricity_NN1 with_PRP substantial_AJ0 amounts_NN2 of_PRF natural_AJ0 gas_NN1 and_CJC grid_NN1 electricity_NN1 despite_PRP incurring_VVG a_AT0 carbon_NN1 price_NN1 of_PRF $_NN0 600_CRD /_PUN t_ZZ0 (_PUL CO2_CRD )_PUR to_TO0 offset_VVI the_AT0 resulting_AJ0 emissions_NN2 with_PRP offsite_AJ0 DACS_NN2 to_TO0 ensure_VVI carbon_NN1 neutrality_NN1 (_PUL excluding_PRP facility_NN1 construction_NN1 life-cycle_NN1 emissions_NN2 )_PUR ._SENT In_PRP the_AT0 today_AV0 wind_NN1 case_NN1 ,_PUN these_DT0 carbon_NN1 price_NN1 payments_NN2 constitute_VVB the_AT0 third_ORD largest_AJS cost_NN1 component_NN1 ,_PUN at_PRP 21.3_CRD %_NN0 of_PRF fuel_NN1 cost_NN1 ,_PUN falling_VVG to_PRP 16.2_CRD %_NN0 in_PRP the_AT0 corresponding_AJ0 solar_AJ0 case_NN1 ._SENT This_DT0 is_VBZ in_PRP large_AJ0 part_NN1 because_CJS the_AT0 Fischer_NP0 –_PUN Tropsch_NP0 system_NN1 modeled_VVD for_PRP fuel_NN1 synthesis_NN1 in_PRP the_AT0 today_AV0 case_NN1 cannot_NN1 operate_VVB flexibly_AV0 ,_PUN forcing_VVG the_AT0 system_NN1 to_TO0 ensure_VVI full_AJ0 operation_NN1 for_PRP the_AT0 entire_AJ0 year_NN1 ,_PUN largely_AV0 through_PRP carbon-intensive_AJ0 grid_NN1 electricity_NN1 and_CJC natural_AJ0 gas_NN1 to_TO0 balance_VVI strongly_AV0 seasonal_AJ0 wind_NN1 and_CJC moderately_AV0 seasonal_AJ0 solar_NN1 ._SENT See_VVB the_AT0 Supporting_AJ0 Information_NN1 ,_PUN Section_NN1 S5.3_NN1 for_PRP cases_NN2 with_PRP no_AT0 carbon_NN1 price_NN1 ._SENT 
Costs_NN2 in_PRP the_AT0 next-decade_NN1 cases_NN2 remain_VVB in_PRP the_AT0 range_NN1 of_PRF $_NN0 1.68_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 –_PUN $_NN0 1.77_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 ,_PUN still_AV0 close_AJ0 to_PRP three_CRD times_NN2 the_AT0 ten-year_AJ0 mean_AJ0 price_NN1 of_PRF pre-tax_AJ0 jet_NN1 fuel_NN1 ,_PUN $_NN0 0.59_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 ,_PUN but_CJC in_PRP a_AT0 similar_AJ0 cost_NN1 range_NN1 to_PRP comparable_AJ0 biobased_AJ0 jet_NN1 fuel_NN1 alternatives_NN2 ._SENT 73.3_CRD –_PUN 78.6_CRD %_NN0 of_PRF fuel_NN1 cost_NN1 in_PRP these_DT0 cases_NN2 is_VBZ capital_AJ0 and_CJC non-energy_AJ0 operational_AJ0 costs_NN2 of_PRF the_AT0 renewable_AJ0 electricity_NN1 generation_NN1 ,_PUN the_AT0 electrolyzer_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC the_AT0 DAC_NP0 system_NN1 ._SENT Fuel_NN1 synthesis_NN1 represents_VVZ 9.6_CRD %_NN0 –_PUN 10.1_CRD %_NN0 of_PRF fuel_NN1 cost_NN1 ,_PUN while_CJS the_AT0 cost_NN1 of_PRF offsetting_AJ0 emissions_NN2 from_PRP grid_NN1 electricity_NN1 and_CJC fossil_NN1 natural_AJ0 gas_NN1 is_VBZ 5.4_CRD –_PUN 7.7_CRD %_NN0 ,_PUN above_PRP the_AT0 cost_NN1 of_PRF the_AT0 electricity_NN1 and_CJC gas_NN1 itself_PNX (_PUL including_PRP interconnection_NN1 costs_NN2 )_PUR at_PRP 3.5_CRD –_PUN 4.2_CRD %_NN0 ._SENT 
In_PRP the_AT0 by_PRP 2050_CRD cases_NN2 ,_PUN costs_NN2 fall_VVB to_PRP $_NN0 0.95_CRD –_PUN 0.99_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 ,_PUN roughly_AV0 50_CRD %_NN0 above_PRP 10-year_AJ0 mean_AJ0 jet_NN1 fuel_NN1 prices_NN2 and_CJC only_AV0 15_CRD –_PUN 22_CRD %_NN0 above_PRP average_AJ0 jet_NN1 fuel_NN1 prices_NN2 in_PRP 2012._CRD In_PRP the_AT0 high-temperature_AJ0 DAC_NP0 cases_NN2 ,_PUN renewable_AJ0 electricity_NN1 generation_NN1 ,_PUN electrolyzer_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC DAC_NP0 system_NN1 costs_NN2 represent_VVB 76_CRD –_PUN 80_CRD %_NN0 of_PRF fuel_NN1 costs_NN2 ,_PUN rising_VVG to_PRP 83_CRD –_PUN 86_CRD %_NN0 in_PRP low-temperature_AJ0 DAC_NP0 cases_NN2 ._SENT This_DT0 is_VBZ due_AJ0 largely_AV0 to_PRP the_AT0 assumed_AJ0 ability_NN1 to_TO0 recycle_VVI heat_NN1 from_PRP both_DT0 the_AT0 fuel_NN1 synthesis_NN1 and_CJC the_AT0 electrolyzer_NN1 to_PRP power_NN1 the_AT0 roughly_AV0 100_CRD °_NN0 C_ZZ0 DAC_NP0 amine_NN1 regeneration_NN1 process_NN1 ._SENT The_AT0 high-temperature_AJ0 systems_NN2 continue_VVB to_TO0 supplement_VVI their_DPS electric_AJ0 kiln_NN1 with_PRP heat_NN1 from_PRP fossil_NN1 natural_AJ0 gas_NN1 ,_PUN amounting_VVG to_PRP 1.2-2.3_CRD %_NN0 of_PRF the_AT0 total_AJ0 cost_NN1 plus_PRP an_AT0 additional_AJ0 3.3_CRD –_PUN 6.3_CRD %_NN0 to_TO0 offset_VVI the_AT0 emissions_NN2 with_PRP a_AT0 carbon_NN1 price_NN1 at_PRP the_AT0 prevailing_AJ0 cost_NN1 of_PRF offsite_NP0 DAC_NP0 (_PUL $_NN0 130_CRD /_PUN t_ZZ0 (_PUL CO2_CRD )_PUR in_PRP the_AT0 high-temperature_AJ0 case_NN1 )_PUR ._SENT The_AT0 low-temperature_AJ0 system_NN1 can_VM0 use_VVI recycled_AJ0 waste_NN1 heat_NN1 or_CJC heat_NN1 from_PRP the_AT0 electric_AJ0 kiln_NN1 ,_PUN which_DTQ is_VBZ less_AV0 expensive_AJ0 to_TO0 store_VVI at_PRP lower_AJC temperatures_NN2 ,_PUN to_TO0 meet_VVI much_DT0 of_PRF its_DPS heat_NN1 demand_NN1 ,_PUN although_CJS it_PNP still_AV0 uses_VVZ some_DT0 natural_AJ0 gas_NN1 at_PRP 0.5_CRD –_PUN 0.6_CRD %_NN0 of_PRF the_AT0 total_AJ0 cost_NN1 plus_PRP 1.1_CRD –_PUN 1.2_CRD %_NN0 to_TO0 offset_VVI the_AT0 resulting_AJ0 emissions_NN2 at_PRP $_NN0 100_CRD /_PUN t_ZZ0 (_PUL CO2_CRD )_PUR ,_PUN the_AT0 assumed_AJ0 cost_NN1 of_PRF standalone_NN1 offsite_NN1 low-temperature_AJ0 DACS_NN2 ._SENT Thus_AV0 ,_PUN waste_AJ0 heat_NN1 recycling_NN1 allows_VVZ low-temperature_AJ0 DAC_NP0 to_TO0 compete_VVI with_PRP lower_AJC capital_NN1 cost_NN1 high-temperature_AJ0 DAC_NP0 ._SENT 
All_DT0 cases_NN2 make_VVB extensive_AJ0 use_NN1 of_PRF the_AT0 system_NN1 flexibility_NN1 offered_VVN by_PRP various_AJ0 forms_NN2 of_PRF energy_NN1 and_CJC material_NN1 storage_NN1 as_CJS well_AV0 as_CJS external_AJ0 fossil_NN1 energy_NN1 interconnections_NN2 ._SENT In_PRP the_AT0 absence_NN1 of_PRF fossil_NN1 energy_NN1 interconnections_NN2 ,_PUN the_AT0 today_AV0 system_NN1 produces_VVZ 12_CRD %_NN0 and_CJC 27_CRD %_NN0 more_AV0 expensive_AJ0 fuel_NN1 for_PRP solar_AJ0 and_CJC wind_NN1 systems_NN2 ,_PUN respectively_AV0 ,_PUN with_PRP greater_AJC reliance_NN1 on_PRP costly_AJ0 hydrogen_NN1 ,_PUN electricity_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC heat_NN1 storage_NN1 as_CJS well_AV0 as_CJS overbuild_NN1 and_CJC curtailment_NN1 of_PRF renewable_AJ0 electricity_NN1 generation_NN1 capacity_NN1 ._SENT Under_PRP next-decade_NN1 assumptions_NN2 ,_PUN a_AT0 no-fossil_AJ0 case_NN1 yields_VVZ smaller_AJC increases_NN2 of_PRF 0.7_CRD –_PUN 0.8_CRD %_NN0 in_PRP solar_AJ0 cases_NN2 and_CJC 7_CRD –_PUN 11_CRD %_NN0 for_PRP wind_NN1 cases_NN2 ._SENT By_PRP 2050_CRD cases_NN2 with_PRP no_AT0 fossil_NN1 carbon_NN1 are_VBB at_PRP cost_NN1 parity_NN1 with_PRP cases_NN2 that_CJT have_VHB fossil_NN1 interconnections_NN2 for_PRP solar_AJ0 and_CJC are_VBB 2_CRD –_PUN 6_CRD %_NN0 more_AV0 expensive_AJ0 for_PRP wind_NN1 cases_NN2 ._SENT See_VVB the_AT0 Supporting_AJ0 Information_NN1 ,_PUN Section_NN1 S5.4_CRD for_PRP further_AJC detail_NN1 ._SENT 
Another_DT0 important_AJ0 and_CJC related_AJ0 form_NN1 of_PRF flexibility_NN1 is_VBZ undersizing_AJ0 ,_PUN also_AV0 discussed_VVN in_PRP ref._NN1 Undersized_AJ0 components_NN2 will_VM0 operate_VVI at_PRP a_AT0 higher_AJC capacity_NN1 factor_NN1 (_PUL total_AJ0 utilization_NN1 as_PRP a_AT0 fraction_NN1 of_PRF maximum_AJ0 possible_AJ0 utilization_NN1 )_PUR than_CJS the_AT0 electricity_NN1 generation_NN1 source_NN1 ,_PUN as_CJS shown_VVN in_PRP Table_NN1 3._CRD The_AT0 most_AV0 consistently_AV0 undersized_AJ0 component_NN1 (_PUL relative_AJ0 to_PRP renewable_AJ0 electricity_NN1 generation_NN1 capacity_NN1 )_PUR is_VBZ the_AT0 capital-intensive_AJ0 DAC_NP0 system_NN1 ,_PUN which_DTQ operates_VVZ above_AV0 90_CRD %_NN0 utilization_NN1 (_PUL total_AJ0 annual_AJ0 output_NN1 as_PRP a_AT0 fraction_NN1 of_PRF potential_AJ0 annual_AJ0 output_NN1 )_PUR in_PRP all_DT0 solar_AJ0 cases_NN2 and_CJC above_AV0 81_CRD %_NN0 utilization_NN1 in_PRP all_DT0 wind_NN1 cases_NN2 ._SENT The_AT0 fuel_NN1 synthesis_NN1 system_NN1 is_VBZ similar_AJ0 ,_PUN with_PRP utilization_NN1 above_PRP 84_CRD %_NN0 in_PRP all_DT0 solar_AJ0 cases_NN2 and_CJC above_AV0 71_CRD %_NN0 in_PRP all_DT0 wind_NN1 cases_NN2 ._SENT Note_VVB that_CJT although_CJS the_AT0 solar_AJ0 electric_AJ0 capacity_NN1 factor_NN1 is_VBZ 29.3_CRD %_NN0 ,_PUN roughly_AV0 half_DT0 that_DT0 of_PRF the_AT0 wind_NN1 capacity_NN1 factor_NN1 of_PRF 57.5_CRD %_NN0 ,_PUN the_AT0 utilization_NN1 of_PRF DAC_NP0 and_CJC fuel_NN1 synthesis_NN1 is_VBZ higher_AJC in_PRP the_AT0 solar_AJ0 case_NN1 due_AJ0 to_PRP less_DT0 extreme_AJ0 seasonality_NN1 in_PRP electricity_NN1 availability_NN1 (_PUL see_VVB the_AT0 Supporting_AJ0 Information_NN1 ,_PUN Section_NN1 S5.2_NN1 for_PRP further_AJC detail_NN1 )_PUR ._SENT In_PRP the_AT0 solar_AJ0 cases_NN2 ,_PUN electrolyzers_NN2 are_VBB also_AV0 undersized_AJ0 to_TO0 achieve_VVI a_AT0 38.8_CRD –_PUN 42.1_CRD %_NN0 utilization_NN1 ,_PUN whereas_CJS relatively_AV0 inexpensive_AJ0 electric_AJ0 kilns_NN2 are_VBB oversized_AJ0 in_PRP all_DT0 cases_NN2 ,_PUN with_PRP utilization_NN1 levels_NN2 of_PRF 6.2_CRD –_PUN 20.0_CRD %_NN0 to_TO0 transform_VVI excess_AJ0 electricity_NN1 to_TO0 heat_VVI for_PRP the_AT0 DAC_NP0 system_NN1 as_CJS needed_VVN ._SENT This_DT0 component_NN1 undersizing_NN1 provides_VVZ substantial_AJ0 cost_NN1 reductions_NN2 ,_PUN illustrated_VVN by_PRP a_AT0 cost_NN1 increase_NN1 of_PRF 68_CRD %_NN0 in_PRP the_AT0 solar_AJ0 today_AV0 case_NN1 if_CJS all_DT0 system_NN1 components_NN2 are_VBB required_VVN to_PRP (_PUL unphysically_AV0 )_PUR operate_VVB at_PRP the_AT0 same_DT0 capacity_NN1 factor_NN1 as_PRP the_AT0 renewable_AJ0 energy_NN1 ._SENT Thus_AV0 ,_PUN although_CJS the_AT0 components_NN2 that_CJT provide_VVB system_NN1 flexibility_NN1 that_CJT enable_VVB undersizing_NN1 (_PUL storage_NN1 of_PRF hydrogen_NN1 ,_PUN heat_NN1 ,_PUN electricity_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC CO2_NP0 ,_PUN and_CJC grid_NN1 electricity_NN1 and_CJC natural_AJ0 gas_NN1 consumption_NN1 including_PRP fossil_NN1 emissions_NN2 offset_VVB payments_NN2 )_PUR constitute_VVB 25.6_CRD %_NN0 of_PRF fuel_NN1 cost_NN1 ,_PUN they_PNP bring_VVB savings_NN2 on_PRP the_AT0 order_NN1 of_PRF twice_AV0 their_DPS cost_NN1 ._SENT See_VVB the_AT0 Supporting_AJ0 Information_NN1 ,_PUN Section_NN1 S5.5_NN1 for_PRP further_AJC detail_NN1 ._SENT 
Note_VVB that_CJT the_AT0 DAC_NP0 ,_PUN fuel_NN1 synthesis_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC ,_PUN to_PRP a_AT0 lesser_AJ0 extent_NN1 ,_PUN the_AT0 electrolyzer_NN1 have_VHB a_AT0 higher_AJC capacity_NN1 factor_NN1 than_CJS the_AT0 renewable_AJ0 electricity_NN1 in_PRP all_DT0 cases_NN2 ._SENT 
Note_VVB that_CJT in_PRP the_AT0 today_AV0 and_CJC by_PRP 2050_CRD low-temperature_AJ0 cases_NN2 ,_PUN the_AT0 optimization_NN1 dispenses_VVZ entirely_AV0 with_PRP the_AT0 electric_AJ0 kiln_NN1 ,_PUN relying_VVG only_AV0 on_PRP natural_AJ0 gas_NN1 in_PRP the_AT0 former_DT0 ,_PUN heavily_AV0 supplemented_VVN by_PRP waste_AJ0 heat_NN1 recycled_VVN from_PRP the_AT0 fuel_NN1 synthesis_NN1 system_NN1 and_CJC electrolyzer_NN1 in_PRP the_AT0 latter_DT0 ._SENT See_VVB the_AT0 Supporting_AJ0 Information_NN1 ,_PUN Section_NN1 S5.1_NN1 for_PRP component_NN1 capacity_NN1 in_PRP each_DT0 scenario_NN1 ._SENT In_PRP addition_NN1 ,_PUN the_AT0 model_NN1 never_AV0 builds_VVZ liquid_AJ0 fuel_NN1 storage_NN1 as_CJS there_EX0 are_VBB few_DT0 if_CJS any_DT0 benefits_NN2 of_PRF undersizing_VVG the_AT0 fuel_NN1 export_NN1 pipeline_NN1 relative_AJ0 to_PRP the_AT0 fuel_NN1 synthesis_NN1 plant_NN1 ._SENT The_AT0 solar_AJ0 next-decade_NN1 cases_NN2 and_CJC all_DT0 wind_NN1 cases_NN2 dispense_VVB entirely_AV0 with_PRP electricity_NN1 storage_NN1 ,_PUN opting_VVG to_TO0 simply_AV0 use_VVI expensive_AJ0 grid_NN1 electricity_NN1 as_PRP a_AT0 backup_NN1 ._SENT Similarly_AV0 ,_PUN the_AT0 today_AV0 and_CJC next-decade_NN1 cases_NN2 ,_PUN as_CJS well_AV0 as_CJS the_AT0 by_PRP 2050_CRD high-temperature_AJ0 wind_NN1 case_NN1 ,_PUN have_VHB no_AV0 or_CJC almost_AV0 no_AT0 heat_NN1 storage_NN1 ,_PUN opting_VVG for_PRP grid_NN1 natural_AJ0 gas_NN1 with_PRP a_AT0 steep_AJ0 carbon_NN1 price_NN1 instead_AV0 ._SENT All_DT0 next-decade_NN1 and_CJC by_PRP 2050_CRD cases_NN2 build_VVB CO2_AJ0 storage_NN1 for_PRP seasonal_AJ0 shifting_NN1 ._SENT See_VVB the_AT0 Supporting_AJ0 Information_NN1 ,_PUN Section_NN1 S5.7_CRD for_PRP further_AJC detail_NN1 ._SENT 
A_AT0 final_AJ0 important_AJ0 form_NN1 of_PRF flexibility_NN1 is_VBZ curtailment_NN1 ._SENT 4_CRD –_PUN 26_CRD %_NN0 of_PRF all_DT0 renewable_AJ0 electricity_NN1 generated_VVN in_PRP each_DT0 scenario_NN1 is_VBZ curtailed_VVN as_PRP waste_NN1 ._SENT The_AT0 ability_NN1 to_TO0 curtail_VVI allows_VVZ the_AT0 system_NN1 to_PRP undersize_AJ0 components_NN2 ,_PUN avoiding_VVG the_AT0 construction_NN1 of_PRF expensive_AJ0 production_NN1 or_CJC storage_NN1 capacity_NN1 that_CJT would_VM0 rarely_AV0 be_VBI utilized_VVN ._SENT See_VVB the_AT0 Supporting_AJ0 Information_NN1 ,_PUN Section_NN1 S5.1_NN1 for_PRP further_AJC detail_NN1 ._SENT 
For_PRP low-temperature_AJ0 cases_NN2 ,_PUN water_NN1 produced_VVN from_PRP the_AT0 DAC_NP0 system_NN1 is_VBZ sufficient_AJ0 to_TO0 supply_VVI the_AT0 electrolyzer_NN1 ._SENT However_AV0 ,_PUN water_NN1 costs_NN2 in_PRP high-temperature_AJ0 cases_NN2 represent_VVB at_PRP most_AV0 $_NN0 0.01_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 or_CJC 1.4_CRD %_NN0 of_PRF the_AT0 total_AJ0 cost_NN1 ._SENT 
3.1_CRD ._SENT GHG_NP0 Mitigation_NN1 Cost-Effectiveness_NN1 
The_AT0 implicit_AJ0 GHG_NN1 mitigation_NN1 cost_NN1 in_PRP these_DT0 scenarios_NN2 ,_PUN compared_VVN with_PRP fossil_NN1 jet_NN1 fuel_NN1 at_PRP even_AV0 its_DPS highest_AJS annual_AJ0 average_AJ0 value_NN1 since_PRP 2010_CRD of_PRF $_NN0 0.81_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 ,_PUN is_VBZ $_NN0 1_CRD ,_PUN 312-_CRD $_NN0 1_CRD ,_PUN 400_CRD /_PUN t_ZZ0 (_PUL CO2_CRD )_PUR today_AV0 ,_PUN $_NN0 315_CRD –_PUN 350_CRD /_PUN t_ZZ0 (_PUL CO2_CRD )_PUR in_PRP the_AT0 next-decade_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC $_NN0 51_CRD –_PUN 65_CRD /_PUN t_ZZ0 (_PUL CO2_CRD )_PUR by_PRP 2050._CRD This_DT0 uses_VVZ the_AT0 method_NN1 described_VVN in_PRP Section_NN1 S5.8_CRD ,_PUN which_DTQ assumes_VVZ that_CJT electrofuels_NN2 have_VHB zero_CRD net_AJ0 carbon_NN1 intensity_NN1 by_PRP paying_VVG a_AT0 carbon_NN1 price_NN1 for_PRP emissions_NN2 offsets_VVZ ._SENT If_CJS fossil_NN1 jet_NN1 fuel_NN1 prices_NN2 fall_VVB to_PRP their_DPS lowest_AJS annual_AJ0 average_AJ0 value_NN1 since_PRP 2010_CRD of_PRF $_NN0 0.35_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 ,_PUN these_DT0 implicit_AJ0 mitigation_NN1 costs_VVZ each_DT0 rise_NN1 by_PRP $_NN0 167_CRD /_PUN t_ZZ0 (_PUL CO2_CRD )_PUR ._SENT Thus_AV0 ,_PUN simply_AV0 offsetting_AJ0 fossil_NN1 jet_NN1 fuel_NN1 emissions_NN2 with_PRP the_AT0 DACS_NP0 technology_NN1 used_VVN in_PRP each_DT0 scenario_NN1 (_PUL costs_NN2 shown_VVN in_PRP Table_NN1 S7_CRD )_PUR is_VBZ a_AT0 more_AV0 cost-effective_AJ0 net-zero_NN1 option_NN1 in_PRP all_DT0 scenarios_NN2 except_CJS the_AT0 by_PRP 2050_CRD cases_NN2 with_PRP a_AT0 high_AJ0 fossil_NN1 jet_NN1 fuel_NN1 price_NN1 ._SENT Sequestration_NN1 costs_NN2 ,_PUN assumed_VVD to_TO0 be_VBI negligible_AJ0 in_PRP the_AT0 main_AJ0 model_NN1 ,_PUN would_VM0 have_VHI to_TO0 rise_VVI above_PRP $_NN0 85_CRD /_PUN t_ZZ0 (_PUL CO2_CRD )_PUR ,_PUN at_PRP the_AT0 very_AV0 high_AJ0 end_NN1 of_PRF the_AT0 existing_AJ0 literature_NN1 ,_PUN to_TO0 make_VVI electrofuels_NN2 cost-effective_AJ0 in_PRP any_DT0 of_PRF the_AT0 today_AV0 or_CJC next-decade_NN1 scenarios_NN2 ._SENT See_VVB the_AT0 Supporting_AJ0 Information_NN1 ,_PUN Section_NN1 S5.8_CRD for_PRP further_AJC detail_NN1 ._SENT 
3.2_CRD ._SENT Sensitivity_NN1 :_PUN The_AT0 Importance_NN1 of_PRF Capital_NN1 Cost_NN1 and_CJC Flexibility_NN1 
Figure_NN1 3_CRD shows_VVZ a_AT0 sensitivity_NN1 analysis_NN1 that_CJT begins_VVZ with_PRP the_AT0 levelized_AJ0 cost_NN1 of_PRF electrofuel_NN1 in_PRP the_AT0 next-decade_NN1 solar_AJ0 high-temperature_AJ0 case_NN1 ,_PUN $_NN0 1.68_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC varies_VVZ each_DT0 parameter_NN1 to_PRP its_DPS today_AV0 and_CJC by_PRP 2050_CRD values_NN2 ,_PUN with_PRP a_AT0 few_DT0 exceptions_NN2 described_VVN in_PRP the_AT0 Supporting_AJ0 Information_NN1 ,_PUN Section_NN1 S7_CRD ._SENT The_AT0 x-axis_NN1 shows_VVZ the_AT0 percent_NN0 change_NN1 in_PRP the_AT0 respective_AJ0 input_NN1 quantity_NN1 from_PRP its_DPS baseline_NN1 ._SENT Only_AJ0 parameters_NN2 with_PRP a_AT0 cost_NN1 swing_NN1 of_PRF at_PRP least_AV0 $_NN0 0.05_CRD /_PUN lge_NP0 are_VBB shown_VVN ._SENT See_VVB the_AT0 Supporting_AJ0 Information_NN1 ,_PUN Section_NN1 S5.6_NN1 for_PRP full_AJ0 sensitivity_NN1 results_NN2 ._SENT 
Figure_NN1 3._CRD Sensitivity_NN1 of_PRF the_AT0 next-decade_NN1 high-temperature_AJ0 solar_AJ0 electrofuel_NN1 production_NN1 scenario_NN1 ,_PUN individually_AV0 varying_AJ0 parameters_NN2 to_PRP their_DPS today_AV0 and_CJC by_PRP 2050_CRD values_NN2 (_PUL with_PRP a_AT0 few_DT0 exceptions_NN2 described_VVN in_PRP the_AT0 Supporting_AJ0 Information_NN1 ,_PUN Section_NN1 S7_CRD )_PUR ._SENT The_AT0 x-axis_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT0 resulting_AJ0 percent_NN0 change_NN1 in_PRP each_DT0 input_NN1 value_NN1 ._SENT Lines_NN2 with_PRP steeper_AJC slopes_NN2 or_CJC larger_AJC vertical_AJ0 lengths_NN2 for_PRP a_AT0 given_AJ0 parameter_NN1 imply_VVB greater_AJC sensitivity_NN1 ._SENT WACC_NP0 is_VBZ the_AT0 weighted_AJ0 average_AJ0 cost_NN1 of_PRF capital_NN1 used_VVN to_TO0 convert_VVI capital_NN1 cost_NN1 into_PRP levelized_AJ0 cost_NN1 ._SENT The_AT0 high_AJ0 value_NN1 of_PRF DAC_NP0 electricity_NN1 demand_NN1 is_VBZ 809_CRD %_NN0 of_PRF the_AT0 baseline_NN1 value_NN1 ,_PUN beyond_PRP the_AT0 x-axis_NN1 limit_NN1 shown_VVN ._SENT Parameters_NN2 with_PRP sensitivity_NN1 less_AV0 than_CJS $_NN0 0.05_CRD /_PUN lge_NP0 are_VBB not_XX0 shown_VVN ._SENT Note_VVB that_CJT no_AT0 parameters_NN2 associated_VVN with_PRP energy_NN1 storage_NN1 reach_VVB this_DT0 level_NN1 ._SENT See_VVB the_AT0 Supporting_AJ0 Information_NN1 ,_PUN Section_NN1 S5.6_NN1 for_PRP full_AJ0 sensitivity_NN1 results_NN2 ._SENT 
Electrofuel_AJ0 cost_NN1 is_VBZ by_PRP far_AV0 the_AT0 most_AV0 sensitive_AJ0 to_PRP the_AT0 capital_NN1 cost_NN1 of_PRF the_AT0 DAC_NP0 ,_PUN electrolyzer_NP0 ,_PUN and_CJC renewable_AJ0 electricity_NN1 generation_NN1 ,_PUN introducing_VVG cost_NN1 swings_NN2 of_PRF $_NN0 0.68_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 ,_PUN $_NN0 0.50_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 ,_PUN and_CJC $_NN0 0.45_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 ,_PUN respectively_AV0 ._SENT The_AT0 WACC_NP0 and_CJC the_AT0 system_NN1 lifetime_NN1 ,_PUN which_DTQ help_VVB determine_VVI the_AT0 annualized_AJ0 capital_NN1 cost_NN1 ,_PUN yield_NN1 cost_NN1 swings_NN2 of_PRF $_NN0 0.45_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 and_CJC $_NN0 0.15_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 ,_PUN respectively_AV0 ._SENT Fuel_NN1 synthesis_NN1 capital_NN1 cost_NN1 introduces_VVZ a_AT0 modest_AJ0 cost_NN1 swing_NN1 of_PRF $_NN0 0.16_CRD /_PUN lge_NP0 ._SENT Note_VVB that_CJT these_DT0 capital_NN1 cost_NN1 sensitivities_NN2 also_AV0 account_VVB for_PRP increases_NN2 in_PRP fixed_AJ0 O_ZZ0 &_NP0 M_ZZ0 costs_NN2 ,_PUN which_DTQ are_VBB modeled_VVN as_PRP an_AT0 annual_AJ0 percentage_NN1 of_PRF capital_NN1 cost_NN1 ._SENT 
The_AT0 system_NN1 is_VBZ sensitive_AJ0 to_TO0 fuel_VVI synthesis_NN1 and_CJC electrolyzer_NN1 efficiency_NN1 ,_PUN represented_VVN by_PRP a_AT0 steep_AJ0 slope_NN1 on_PRP the_AT0 plot_NN1 ._SENT However_AV0 ,_PUN in_PRP both_DT0 cases_NN2 ,_PUN there_EX0 is_VBZ limited_AJ0 room_NN1 for_PRP efficiency_NN1 improvements_NN2 ,_PUN leading_VVG to_PRP modest_AJ0 cost_NN1 swings_NN2 of_PRF $_NN0 0.15-_CRD $_NN0 0.16_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 in_PRP both_DT0 cases_NN2 ._SENT 
Although_CJS no_AT0 storage-related_AJ0 parameter_NN1 has_VHZ a_AT0 cost_NN1 swing_NN1 above_PRP $_NN0 0.05_CRD /_PUN lge_NP0 ,_PUN the_AT0 CO2_AJ0 price_NN1 (_PUL set_VVN by_PRP default_NN1 to_PRP the_AT0 cost_NN1 of_PRF offsite_AJ0 DACS_NN2 )_PUR and_CJC natural_AJ0 gas_NN1 price_NN1 introduce_VVB costs_NN2 swings_NN2 of_PRF $_NN0 0.14_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 and_CJC $_NN0 0.06_CRD /_PUN lge_NN1 ,_PUN respectively_AV0 ._SENT 
